Harlequinmania

Click through to see the images. The boon of grandiose public aquariums that have opened in recent years - including Denmark's jaw-dropping Blue Planet Aquarium, the upcoming Batumi Aquarium, and Utah's Living Planet Aquarium under construction - really puts a smile on our faces. The 12,000 square meter (130,000 square feet) Cairns Aquarium and Research Centre will contain three stories of glorious aquatic exhibits with an emphasis on the Great Barrier Reef and Australia's Daintree Rainforest (for anyone who thought the Cairns Aquarium was going to feature the Amazon Basin, sorry ... really sorry). Reef research will also be conducted at the facility. The exterior of Cairns Aquarium is a modern tour de force. The building will be clad in mammoth white slabs designed to evoke shifting tectonic plates. Strategically placed blue-tinted windows, including a massive 18 x 11.5 meter (60 x 36 foot) front entrance window, will emanate water-esque light out into the streets serving as a glowing beacon for passer-bys to come explore the building. Peddle Thorp Architects and Architects Ellick and Partners are joining forces to design the $48.5 million AUD aquarium, scheduled to open sometime in 2016. As with most modern public buildings, the Cairns Aquarium will be a "green" by drawing half of its operational power from solar energy and using LEDs extensively throughout its facility. 2016 can't come soon enough! View the full article

Click through to see the images. Professor Sean Connolly from the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies (Coral CoE) at James Cook University (JCU) is the lead author of the international study, which he says overturns the long-used theory by employing a novel mathematical method. It is the largest study of its kind, covering a broad range of marine ecosystems on Earth. “The study has important implications for how marine conservation areas are managed,” Professor Connolly says. “The aim of neutral theory is to explain diversity and the relative abundances of species within ecosystems. However, the theory has an important flaw: it fails to capture how important the highly abundant species that dominate marine communities are.” Professor Connolly explains that it’s often the really abundant species that deliver substantial ecosystem services like providing habitat for fishes, or keeping reefs clear of seaweeds. “These species have unique features that allow them to be so abundant, and to play those key roles,” he says. But when neutral theory underpins marine conservation, species are treated as swappable. “So the theory implies that, if you lose a really abundant species, then another can simply increase in abundance to take its place.” Using neutral theory, species become common or rare as a consequence of random processes: chance variation in who a predator happens to eat, or whose dispersing offspring happen to land on a vacant bit of real estate on the seafloor. This study shows that these random processes are not strong enough to explain the large differences between common and rare species. Professor Connolly points to Caribbean coral reefs as an example of why this problem with neutral theory can be important. “Until the 1970s, these reefs were dominated by two species that were close relatives of the branching corals that dominate the reefs of the Great Barrier Reef. When these species were nearly lost as a consequence of overfishing and other forms of reef degradation, no other coral species increased to fill the gap,” he says. “Those species had particular traits that made them so abundant, and therefore critical to a functioning healthy reef system,” continues Dr Julian Caley a co-author of the study from the Australian Institute of Marine Studies (AIMS). “Both biodiversity theory and conservation managers need to be alert to these characteristics, because it is often the common species, not the rare ones, that are most important to healthy ecosystems,” Dr Caley explains. “The results of this study are also unprecedented in their remarkable consistency across a very large set of vastly different ecological systems throughout the world’s oceans,” he adds. The study looks at 14 different marine ecosystems sampled at 1185 locations across the globe. The datasets range from the polar to tropical regions, from deep-sea to shallow coral reef environments and intertidal zones. It includes vertebrates as well as invertebrates, from plankton, to clams, to coral reef fishes. To overturn neutral theory, the study used a novel mathematical method that identified common predictions of the different models that form the theory. These predictions were then tested against this wide array of marine ecosystems. ‘Commonness and rarity in the marine biosphere’ by Sean R. Connolly, M. Aaron MacNeil, M. Julian Caley, Nancy Knowlton, Ed Cripps, Mizue Hisano, Loïc Thibaut, Bhaskar D. Bhattacharya, Lisandro Benedetti-Cecchi, Russell E. Brainard, Angelika Brandt, Fabio Bulleri, Kari E. Ellingsen, Stefanie Kaiser, Ingrid Kröncke, Katrin Linse, Elena Maggi, Timothy D. O’Hara, Laetitia Plaisance, Gary C. B. Poore, Santosh K. Sarkar, Kamala K. Satpathy, Ulrike Schückel, Alan Williams, and Robin S. Wilson appears in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. [via ARC Centre of Excellence in Coral Reef Studies] View the full article

Click through to see the images. The Ethereal The Maxspect Ethereal is a modular LED lighting system that is designed to illuminate a 24x24" (60x60cm) area. Users can control the photoperiod, weather simulation, and presumably color and intensity of a single or multiple Ethereal units with their iOS, Android, and Windows devices. Each Ethereal features ten multi-chip LEDs and what appears to be a central cooling fan. This light is mounted to aquariums with an integrated clamping arm (where the included wireless transmitter is located). Advanced Aquarist will supply more details about the technology and pricing when they are available. The Glaive The Maxspect Glaive is an entirely different beast. It's a passively-cooled LED strip that features four-core multi-chip LEDs each rated at 7 watts. An infrared remote control system is supplied to turn the fixture on/off as well as adjust four channels of LED. The fixture is mounted using curved legs designed to sit on the side panels of your aquarium. The Glaive will initially launch in four different lengths: 16" (40cm), 25 watts 24" (60cm), 40 watts 32" (80cm), 55 watts 48" (100cm), 70 watts Additionally, Maxspect will offer two different color versions of the Glaive: one for freshwater (F models) and one for saltwater (M models). See spectrograph to the right. The F models use 6000K white Cree EZ1000, 450nm blue, 520nm green, and 620nm deep red LEDs. The M models use 3000K warm white Cree EZ1000, 460nm royal blue, 500nm blue, and 420nm "super actinic" LEDs. Prices and available are to be determined. View the full article

Click through to see the images. We here at Advanced Aquarist are guilty of being pretty serious about our aquariums. But everyone now and then, it's refreshing to just have fun with fish tanks and let our silly creativity run free. According to Kelsey's Etsy profile page, she is a self-professed dork, "graphic designer and web developer, with a passion for crafting, DIY, and all things geeky." Now that's our kind of girl! Kelsey describes the start of her Super Mario Bros. LEGO aquarium (republished with her blessing): Mario Aquarium So forever ago I saw a fish tank that was based off of Mario from NES and have been wanting to do something similar ever since for the house my boyfriend and I just moved into. I'm very crafty - I'm a web dev/graphic designer (BA in GD) for work so I enjoy creating things. I also own the Silhouette Cameo (die cutter), which always plays a huge role in my projects. I started last week and this is what I have done so far. Note: Everything will be coated with Krylon Fusion, a highly recommended clear enamel from aquarists that will make everything water proof and fish safe. First I did the backdrop. I redesigned the scene in Illustrator - outlines, hills, clouds, etc. The hills and clouds were cut out of cardstock and the black outlines and details in clouds and bushes were done with vinyl. I used spray adhesive to glue everything on the blue background and then brought it to Staples to laminate. Note: the bottom of the tank was hand painted by me to look like the bricks along the bottom of the screen Next I started constructing the castles. World 1-1 only has one castle, but I had made this enormous one with a different world in mind, but couldn't get the right colored backdrop so had to switch. Whatever, more places for the fish to hide. Each castle was made with brown Legos, which were god damn expensive - most expensive part of the project. Not to mention the nearest store is 40 minutes away. They also only carry two different types of bricks in brown at my store, which meant I had to substitute a few brick-red ones in there. The black lines were all cut with my machine and made out of vinyl, then I put them on one by one :'D The pipes! PVC pipes sprayed in lime green spray paint, then the dark green details were vinyl along with the black. These didn't come out as great as I wanted them to, but will look fine in the tank. Staircase - brown legos with black and white vinyl. That's it for now! You can chat with Kelsey on your reddit post about her 55 gallon Super Mario Bros. LEGO aquarium. She plans to update us when this aquarium is completed. We can't wait. View the full article

Click through to see the images. Life on the reef is an amazingly complicated thousand-piece orchestra. Countless organisms big and tiny each do their small part to keep the whole living mega-machine churning. At its most fundamental, coral reefs would not exist without fast-growing reef-building stony corals (e.g. Acropora spp.). In turn, these corals could not exist without their intimate relationships with microscopic algae and bacteria. This interdependency starts at the very beginning of a coral's life. A new research published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B identified bacterial biofilm responsible for eliciting baby Caribbean corals (coral larvae) to settle and attach – ie. the start of a new coral colony. Pseudoalteromonas sp. PS5 emits a chemical that convinces free-living coral larvae to transform into attached coral colonies. Conversely, when scientists killed the bacteria using antibiotics, the brooded larvae of Porites, Orbicella (formerly Montastraea), and Acropora failed to metamorphosize and attach to substrates. Pseudoalteromonas sp. produces a compound called tetrabromopyrrole (TBP). In 2011, scientists studying Pacific Acropora millepora larvae isolated this compound growing on coralline algae and identified it as the chemical signal responsible for the induction of larval metamorphosis and settlement. Three years later, researchers of Caribbean coral confirm past research done with Pacific coral. Basically, corals everywhere would not exist without either algae or bacteria. In short: Coralline algae cultures bacteria that send out chemical cues to coral babies to settle down and start new colonies, ultimately giving birth to new coral reefs. Thus begins the beautiful symphony of the ocean's magnum opus. View the full article

Selling the above since changing to vortex. 2 unit of Tunze 6055 ( controllable ) - $ 180.00 each Tunze multi controller 7095 - $ $150.00 Take the whole set ( 2 tunze wave maker + controller ) - $450.00 ** priority given to those that can take whole set. ** all unit more than one year old but still in excellent working condition. Can test on the spot. Deal at Cck

Click through to see the images. Abstract Zooxanthellae within stony corals (Porites sp.) were exposed to LED-generated light of differing spectral qualities and photosynthetic efficiencies were determined. Red light (631nm and 657nm) was most efficient, followed by Violet (peaking at 400nm and marketed as 'UV'), Blue (420nm), and White (433nm and phosphors). Blue/White light (453 & 467nm with phosphors) was least efficient. Protective xanthophylls (absorbing blue and blue/green light at ~440-490nm thereby competing with photopigments chlorophyll a, chlorophyll c² and peridinin) seem to be responsible for the different rates of photosynthesis. Black light (365nm) was found to promote photosynthesis. Reports for coral growth at very low PAR values (25 µmolm²sec) were also investigated. The Xanthophyll Cycle (a 'pressure relief valve' for excessive photosynthesis that might result in coral bleaching) was found to begin at different light intensities of LEDs of various colors. Protection did not occur in Red light (631nm and 657nm; Up to an intensity of 170 µmolm²sec, possibly explaining the damaging effects of red light at very high intensity) but did so in Blue/White and Blue light (90 and 100 µmolm²sec, respectively) and 'White' and 'UV' (400nm) at 40 and 50 µmolm²sec, respectively. Long-term experiments are in the planning stages. Introduction Advanced technology allows quick determination of a light source's ability to promote photosynthesis. The availability of two devices has made this possible: A 'photosynthesis meter' (a PAM fluorometer, which allows in-situ determination of rates of photosynthesis) and LEDs (Light-Emitting Diodes of high efficiencies when combined with lenses to create intense light fields.) Determination of efficient (photosynthetically speaking) light sources is important for several reasons. Economy in the costs of maintaining a coral reef aquarium certainly is a concern, but the health of zooxanthellae and hence their animal host should be of primary importance. Aesthetic concerns, such as the promotion of coral coloration through expression of fluorescent proteins and non-fluorescent chromoproteins, are of interest to many. The radiometric power of a photon matters not in photosynthesis - a blue photon (with high radiometric power) will drive photosynthesis just as well as a photon of lesser energy (say, a red photon.) So, it would seem that the issue is settled. It is not. The adage 'a photon is a photon' is true when discussing light production by various light sources, but it is not correct when considering how different light wavelengths (or bandwidths) promote photosynthesis. This article will examine photosynthetic efficiencies of various LEDs. Specifically, six light sources were tested for photosynthetic responses by zooxanthellae found in the stony coral Porites (most likely Symbiodinium of Clade C15.) The light sources include a black light (mostly UV-A produced by a fluorescent lamp), and LEDs radiating energy at peaks of 400nm (UV-A/violet), a 418nm LED (producing mostly violet with a small amount of UV-A), a blue/white LED combination peaking at white light with a peak 443nm and 457nm, a 'white' LED with a blue peak at 443nm, and red LEDs producing maximal light at 631nm and 657nm. All tests were performed when light intensity was at sub-saturating levels. Evidence suggests absorption by carotenoids is responsible for lessened photosynthetic efficiencies at 450 nm and 470 nm. Energy dissipation through various non-photochemical means will be presented, with a discussion on this subject to follow in a future article. Answers were obtained for the following questions: Do measurements made by PAR meters really tell us everything we need to know about light intensity? What can we make of reports about successful coral husbandry under very low (but specific) lighting conditions? Is there a difference in rates of photosynthesis when a coral and its zooxanthellae are exposed to different colored LEDs? If so, which LED is best at promoting photosynthesis? Do energy dissipation pathways differ when using differently colored lights? Why might the color of the LED light make a difference? Does ultraviolet radiation (UV-A at ~365nm) promote photosynthesis in zooxanthellate corals? We'll examine answers to these questions at the end of this article, but first we'll look at the definitions of terminology used in this article: Glossary Absorption: Uptake, or taking in,of radiant energy. Absorbance: The capacity of a substance to absorb radiation, expressed as the common logarithm of the reciprocal of transmittance of the substance. Action Spectrum: The rate of physiological activity (such as oxygen production resulting from photosynthesis) plotted against wavelength of light. See Figure X for an action spectrum of zooxanthellae from a stony coral. Bandwidth: The range of frequencies within a given waveband. Violet light's bandwidth is defined as those wavelength frequencies between 380nm and 430nm. Carotenes: A sub-group of carotenoids. -carotene is found in zooxanthellae and may act as a rather inefficient photopigment and/or as an anti-oxidant. Carotenes are made by plants (and not animals) and are usually yellow, orange, or red in color. Carotenoid: Any of about 600 naturally occurring pigments in plants. Carotenoids can be divided into two sub-categories: Carotenes and Xanthophylls. Electron Transport Rate: The rate of electron flow from Photosystem II (PSII) to Photosystem I (PSI), and abbreviated as ETR. If the amount of light absorbed is not measured, the electron flow is reported as the Relative Electron Transport Rate (rETR). Fluorescence: The absorption of light energy and emission of this light energy at a longer wavelength. Hue: A main property of color. Unique hues are blue, green, yellow, and red. LED: Light-Emitting Diode. A semi-conductor capable of producing near-monochromatic radiant energy. Monochromator: A laboratory device capable of splitting white light into its components, and delivering light of pure hue. Nanometer: One billionth of a meter. Abbreviated as nm. NO: Non-regulated quenching of chlorophyll fluorescence by means other than photosynthesis and NPQ. NPQ: Non-photochemical quenching of chlorophyll fluorescence, specifically shunting of energy away from photosynthesis by xanthophylls, mostly as a protective measure against excessive light energy. Considered to be a 'regulated' means of energy dissipation. PAM Fluorometer: A device capable of monitoring chlorophyll fluorescence, and is capable of calculating the fate of absorbed light energy, either through photosynthesis or two other dissipation pathways (including NPQ: Non-Photochemical Quenching of chlorophyll fluorescence by protective xanthophylls) or NO (dissipation by other pathways, including photoinhibition.) PAM stands for Pulse Amplitude Modulated light intensity. PAR (Photosynthetically Active Radiation): That visible light energy between 400 and 700nm. It is important to note that photosynthesis does not simply stop at wavelengths below 400nm - violet and some ultraviolet wavelengths can promote photosynthesis! PPFD: Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density: The number of photosynthetically active photons falling upon a surface of given dimensions in a given time, usually expressed as microMol photons per square meter per second (µmol photons ·m²·sec, or simply µmol·m²·sec.) Photopigments: Organic substances responsible for collecting light energy and hence the promotion of photosynthesis. Common photopigments in zooxanthellae are chlorophyll a, chlorophyll c², peridinin, and -carotene. Radiometer: An instrument that measures radiant energy. For our purposes, the radiometer measures ultraviolet radiation and reports its intensity in microwatts per square centimeter (µwatts·cm².) Saturation, Photosynthetic: Photosynthetic Saturation is reached when an increased amount of light does not increase the rate of photosynthesis. Sub-saturating light intensity is that seen between zero photosynthesis and just below saturating intensity. Spill Over: See State Transition. State Transition: A redistribution of collected light energy from one photosystem to another, thus allowing photosynthesis to occur in an efficient manner. Redistribution is known to occur in some zooxanthellae clades, usually from Photosystem II to Photosystem I, and prevents a damaging traffic jam of electrons. State Transition is also known as 'spill-over.' Ultraviolet Radiation: That radiation just below that visible to the human eye. For our purposes Ultraviolet-A (UV-A) is defined as 320nm -~380nm. Ultraviolet-B (UV-B) ranges from 290nm - 320nm. Xanthophylls: Oxygenated carotenoids. Important xanthophylls found in zooxanthellae are diadinoxanthin and diatoxanthin - these play an important role in protecting them from excessive light. Dinoxanthin is an accessory pigment that transfers collected energy to dinoflagellates photosystems (with an unknown efficiency) and might act as an antioxidant as well. Yield: The amount of product produced (such as photosynthesis) by the interaction of two substances (such as light and chlorophyll), generally expressed as a percentage. Zooxanthellae typically have a Yield of 0.30 - 0.40, while terrestrial plants' Yields are much higher (~0.80.) Absorption Characteristics of Zooxanthellae Photopigments Symbiodinium dinoflagellates contain three major photopigments - chlorophyll a, chlorophyll c, and the carotenoid peridinin. Peridinin absorbs light into the green portion of the spectrum - this is the reason many corals appear brown. Table 1 shows the absorption peaks of these photopigments. Table 1. Absorption Properties of Zooxanthellae Photopigments Peak 1 Peak 2 Peak 3 Peak 4 Peak 5 Peak 6 Peak 7 Chlorophyll a 430.3 662.1 410.7 382.7 616.5 580.3 534.1 Chlorophyll c 450.1 395.5 581.1 629.7 N/A N/A N/A Peridinin 455.5 484.7 430 N/A N/A N/A N/A Problems with Using Action Spectra for Determination of Photosynthesis Light Requirements The standard method for determining light requirements for corals' zooxanthellae has been examination of absorption characteristics of photopigments such as chlorophyll a, chlorophyll c, etc. (good) or action spectrums (better). Both are not without problems. Absorption characteristics are usually based on pigments extracted in solvents. Spectral characteristics shift slightly according to the extraction solvent used, and photopigments, when combined, also change these characteristics slightly. A better way is to examine the action spectrum of zooxanthellae isolated from a stony coral. This is usually done with a monochromator, where a beam of pure color (hue) illuminates a culture of Symbiodinium dinoflagellates and a reaction is determined (such as oxygen evolution). A chart of wavelengths versus reaction is then made. See Figure 1. This method also suffers from deficiencies - the two Photosystems (I and II) absorb light wavelengths with difference efficiencies, hence a monochromator might stimulate one photosystem, but not the other, and photosynthesis might not proceed efficiently (although 'spill-over' - also called State Transitions 1 or 2 - could perhaps overcome this problem - something very much in the discovery phase for zooxanthellae.) See Kirk (2000) for further details on action spectrums. Figure 1. An action spectrum for a stony coral's zooxanthellae. Using this chart, it would appear that blue light is the most efficient promoter of photosynthesis. Is it? Another method for estimating light requirements of a coral's zooxanthellae was developed during preparation of this article. It is non-invasive and easily performed if proper equipment is available. This method involves measuring of absorbance with a spectrometer and associated software (in this case, an Ocean Optics fiber optic spec and SpectraSuite software). A modification to this standard procedure is the use of a coral skeleton as a reflectance/absorbance standard in lieu of a 99% diffuse standard. See Figures 2 - 4, and Table 2. Figure 2. Porites coral absorbance, with a coral skeleton used as the absorbance standard. It is remarkably similar to the action spectrum in Figure 1, and is non-invasive to boot. Figure 3.Coral/zooxanthellae absorption in 10nm bandwidths. Figure 4. Coral and symbiont absorption by color, or hue. Table 2. Light absorption by coral and symbionts, expressed in %. Wavelength, nm Percent Wavelength, nm Percent Wavelength, nm Percent 400-410 5.55% 501-510 3.57% 601-610 2.04% 411-420 5.16% 511-520 3.41% 611-620 2.21% 421-430 5.37% 521-530 3.29% 621-630 2.37% 431-440 5.10% 531-540 3.14% 631-640 2.48% 441-450 4.81% 541-550 2.89% 641-650 2.54% 451-460 4.50% 551-560 2.59% 651-660 2.78% 461-470 4.27% 561-570 2.28% 661-670 3.53% 471-480 4.04% 571-580 2.12% 671-680 3.75% 481-490 3.83% 581-590 2.17% 681-690 2.98% 491-500 3.73% 591-600 2.14% 691-700 1.37% Using these data, it would seem that we need only to use a light source that mimics action or absorption spectra in order to promote photosynthesis in a most efficient manner. The following sections describe light bandwidths, the light sources used in the procedures (in great detail), and the photosynthetic responses of a Porites coral's zooxanthellae to these light sources. If this is not of particular interest, skip to the Discussion section. Description of Light Bandwidths Since there are gradual transitions between colors in the visible spectrum, it would not be surprising that definitions of color bandwidths vary among sources. To confuse the issue even further, quantum meters report those wavelengths falling between 400 and 700 nm, leaving out a portion of the violet bandwidth (380 - 399nm.) Hence, I will define bandwidths as follows: Violet: 400 - 430 nm Blue: 431 - 480 nm Green-Blue: 481 - 490 nm Blue-Green: 491 - 510 nm Green: 511 - 530 nm Yellow-Green: 531 - 570 nm Yellow: 571 - 580 nm Orange: 581 - 600 nm Red: 601 - 700 nm Light Sources Used in These Procedures This section will describe the light sources used in the experiments, and some caveats that are important to serious hobbyists. Our discussion begins with: 'Black Light' - Peak Output: 365nm Black light, or UV-A radiation, produced by a fluorescent lamp was used to determine if zooxanthellae can utilize these wavelengths in photosynthesis. About 28% of this lamp's output is in the range visible to the average human eye, according to analysis with a spectrometer. See Figures 5 through 7, & Table 3. Figure 5. Spectral characteristics of a fluorescent black light lamp. Figure 6. The output of a black light lamp is almost entirely in the ultraviolet range, which is invisible to the human eye. Figure 7. Output of the black light per 10nm bandwidths. Table 3. Radiation production of the black light per 10nm bandwidth, expressed as %. Wavelength, nm Percent Wavelength, nm Percent 350-359 6% 390-399 2% 360-369 29% 400-410 22% 370-379 25% 411-420 5% 380-389 8% 421-430 1% 'Ultraviolet' LED - Peak Output: 400 nm The term 'ultraviolet' is something of a misnomer in this case, if we recognize the definition of violet light as being those wavelengths between 380nm and 430nm. In this case, practically all of the radiation produced falls into the 'violet' bandwidth. Interestingly, ~40% of the LED's output will not detected by PAR meters with a cutoff of wavelengths below 400nm. See Figure 8 - 10, and Table 4. Figure 8. Spectral characteristics of the 'UV' LED. Figure 9. A break out of radiation produced by the 'UV' LED. Note how the color bandwidths are defined in the legend! Figure 10. Output of the 'UV' LED per 10nm bandwidth. Table 4. Radiation production of the 'UV' LED per 10nm bandwidth, expressed as %. Wavelength, nm Percent Wavelength, nm Percent 350-359 0% 420-429 3% 360-369 0% 430-439 1% 370-379 0% 440-449 0% 380-389 2% 450-459 0% 390-399 37% 460-469 0% 400-409 44% 470-479 0% 410-419 11% 480-489 0% 420nm 'Blue' LED - Peak Output: 418nm The peak output of these LEDs (418nm) is remarkably close to the advertised peak. Note that about 6% of the output will not be detected by a PAR meter with a cutoff of 400nm and below. See Figures 7 - 9, and Table 5. Figure 7. Spectral output of the 420nm LED. Figure 8. A break out of radiation produced by the 420nm LED. Figure 9. Output of the 420nm LED in % by 10nm bandwidths. Table 5. Light production of the 420nm LED per 10nm bandwidth, expressed as %. Wavelength, nm Percent Wavelength, nm Percent 350-359 0% 421-430 25% 360-369 1% 431-440 12% 370-379 1% 441-450 5% 380-389 1% 451-460 2% 390-399 3% 461-470 1% 400-410 12% 471-480 1% 411-420 36% 481-490 0% Blue and White LED Combination - Peak Output: 453 and 467nm This custom-built LED fixture has a combination of LEDs producing blue and white light. LEDs producing 'white' light are actually blue LEDs that have been doped with phosphors that absorb blue light and fluoresce it as white light. See Figures 10 - 12, and Table 6. Figure 10. This blue and white LED combination peaks at 453nm and 467nm, with 'white light' produced by doping blue LEDs with phosphors. Figure 11. A break out of radiation produced by the blue and white LED combination. Figure 12. Output of the blue/white LED combination in 10nm bandwidths. Table 6. Radiation production of the blue/white LED combination per 10nm bandwidth, expressed as %. Wavelength, nm Percent Wavelength, nm Percent Wavelength, nm Percent 400-410 0.16% 501-510 2.51% 601-610 2.41% 411-420 0.31% 511-520 2.78% 611-620 2.10% 421-430 0.95% 521-530 3.20% 621-630 1.77% 431-440 3.15% 531-540 3.43% 631-640 1.43% 441-450 9.07% 541-550 3.54% 641-650 1.13% 451-460 12.97% 551-560 3.49% 651-660 0.88% 461-470 12.94% 561-570 3.33% 661-670 0.65% 471-480 9.47% 571-580 3.14% 671-680 0.49% 481-490 5.39% 581-590 2.94% 681-690 0.36% 491-500 3.03% 591-600 2.71% 691-700 0.26% 'White' LED - Peak Output = 443nm These LEDs are variants of those previously discussed. Blue light is produced with a maximum output at 443nm, and some of this blue light is absorbed by phosphors within the LED and fluoresced as full-spectrum 'white' light. See Figures 13 - 15, and Table 7. Figure 13. Spectral characteristics of the 4,000K 'white' LED. Figure 14. A break out of radiation produced by the 4,000K 'white' LED. Figure 15. Output of the 'white' LED in 10nm bandwidths. Table 7. Light production of the 4000K 'white' LED per 10nm bandwidth, expressed as %. Wavelength, nm Percent Wavelength, nm Percent Wavelength, nm Percent 400-410 0.13% 501-510 4.44% 601-610 3.72% 411-420 0.34% 511-520 5.81% 611-620 3.10% 421-430 1.31% 521-530 6.73% 621-630 2.51% 431-440 4.60% 531-540 7.11% 631-640 1.97% 441-450 7.02% 541-550 7.18% 641-650 1.52% 451-460 3.18% 551-560 6.89% 651-660 1.16% 461-470 1.71% 561-570 6.32% 661-670 0.85% 471-480 1.31% 571-580 5.67% 671-680 0.63% 481-490 1.66% 581-590 5.05% 681-690 0.46% 491-500 2.87% 591-600 4.41% 691-700 0.34% Red LEDs - Peak Output: 631 nm and 657nm Red light is important in the promotion of photosynthesis. See Figures 16 - 18, and Table 8. Figure 16. Spectral power distribution of red LEDs. Figure 17. A break out of radiation produced by red LEDs. Figure 18. This LED fixture from Build My LED generates light peaking at 631nm and 657nm. Table 8. Output of the red LEDs, expressed as %. Wavelength, nm Percent Wavelength, nm Percent Wavelength, nm Percent 400-410 0.06% 501-510 0.08% 601-610 2.73% 411-420 0.05% 511-520 0.09% 611-620 7.28% 421-430 0.06% 521-530 0.09% 621-630 20.67% 431-440 0.05% 531-540 0.11% 631-640 20.44% 441-450 0.06% 541-550 0.14% 641-650 13.81% 451-460 0.06% 551-560 0.14% 651-660 22.85% 461-470 0.06% 561-570 0.18% 661-670 7.10% 471-480 0.06% 571-580 0.25% 671-680 1.20% 481-490 0.07% 581-590 0.47% 681-690 0.42% 491-500 0.07% 591-600 1.12% 691-700 0.25% Results The following charts demonstrate the rate of photosynthesis - the relative electron transport rate (rETR) - in a Porites coral when illuminated by various LED light sources described above. Other energy dissipation pathways (NPQ and NO) are shown as well. See the Glossary (above) for definitions and the Methods and Materials (below) for further information. See Figures 19 - 24. Figure 19. Take home message: The green line shows that photosynthesis occurs when the coral's Zooxanthellae is illuminated with black light. This figure shows the Yields of energy dissipation pathways when a black light is used as the light source. Since a PAR meter does not 'see' the maximum output of the lamp at 365nm, no ETRs can be calculated. Note that PPFD detected by the Li-Cor PAR meter during this procedure was less than 1 µmol·m²·sec. Figure 20. The rate of photosynthesis (and energy dissipation routes) when a "UV" LED is used as the light source. These rates have been corrected for photosynthetic radiation not sensed by quantum meters. Figure 21.Zooxanthellae ETRs when a LED generating light maximally at 420nm is employed. Figure 22. A 'white' LED and its effects on photosynthesis, NPQ, and NO. Figure 23.Surprisingly, a combination of blue and white light produced by these LEDs yielded low rates of photosynthesis. Figure 24. Red light generated the highest rates of photosynthesis. Discussion Results of testing show there are clear differences in the rate of photosynthesis when light sources of different hue (or color) are used. See Figure 25. Figure 25. Photosynthetic performance. From left, UV LED (peak at ~400nm), 420nm LED, white LED (4,000 K, peak at 443nm), blue/white LED combination (peaks at 453nm, and 457nm with phosphors), and red LEDs (631 and 657nm.) The difference between the lowest rate (blue/white combo) and highest rate (red LEDs) is ~39%. These results may seem perplexing if we take the adage 'a photon is a photon' to be correct, and the color of light (or more correctly, its energy level) does not make a difference in photosynthesis (which is true.) The differences in the rates of photosynthesis can be explained through an examination of things that compete with photosynthesis through absorption of light. Play particular attention to the absorption properties, especially in the blue portion of the spectrum. Competition for Light by Things Other Than Zooxanthellae - Carotenoids and the Coral Skeleton Two groups of carotenoid pigments can compete for light with photopigments (chlorophylls, peridinin, etc.) - Carotenes and Xanthophylls (Latin for 'yellow leaf'.) A carotene - beta-carotene (-carotene) - is known to exist in zooxanthellae. -carotene appears yellow-orange because it absorbs violet and blue light (See Figure 26.) It can act as an anti-oxidant as well as a photopigment, although its transfer of collected light energy to a photosystem's reaction center is not very efficient (Telfer, 2002). Hill et al. (2012) found -carotene in three coral species examined (Acropora millepora, Pocillopora damicornis, and Pavona decussata.) In A. millepora and P. damicornis the -carotene concentrations, relative to chlorophyll a, rose when these corals were stressed by an increased temperature. Figure 26. Beta-carotene is a photopigment found in at least some zooxanthellae. It also acts as a protective antioxidant agent. It appears yellow-orange because it absorbs violet and blue light. After Jeffrey et al., 1997. Figure 27 shows the relative concentration of -carotene in some Caribbean stony corals. Considering the date of this work (1981), it is possible that future improvements in laboratory techniques would identify the pigment dinoxanthin as other xanthophylls such as diadinoxanthin and diatoxanthin (see next section.) Figure 27. Relative concentrations of pigments found in select Caribbean stony corals. The amount of carotenoids (xanthophylls and carotenes) is not insignificant (9%). After Gil-Turnes and Corredor (1981). Xanthophylls (oxygenated carotenoids) are also found in zooxanthellae. Two xanthophylls (diadinoxanthin and diatoxanthin) play an important role in protecting symbiotic algae and coral hosts from excessive light energy. When light energy is sufficient enough to effect pH changes within the photosynthetic apparatus of zooxanthellae, diadinoxanthin is converted to diatoxanthin. This conversion shunts light energy away from photosynthesis. In darkness, the process reverses, and diatoxanthin becomes diadinoxanthin. Note that these xanthophylls both absorb some violet but most strongly blue wavelengths at ~450 - 490nm. See Figure 28. Figure 28. These xanthophylls (diadinoxanthin and diatoxanthin) are important photosynthesis regulators in zooxanthellae. They also absorb mostly violet and blue light. After Jeffrey et al., 1997. There is another xanthophyll reportedly found in stony corals and Tridacnid clams - dinoxanthin. Jeffries et al. (1997) state it is a minor pigment (relative to chlorophylls and other photopigments.) There is some debate about early reports of dinoxanthin in corals - some feel advances in analytical procedures would find that dinoxanthin is actually another xanthophyll, perhaps diadinoxanthin or diatoxanthin. . In any case, the pigment in Caribbean stony corals is about 7% of total photopigment content. See Figure 27. See Figure 29 for absorbance data for dinoxanthin. Figure 29. Absorption properties of the xanthophyll Dinoxanthin. After Jeffrey et al., 1997. Light Absorbance by the Coral Skeleton Although we might think of the coral skeleton as perfectly white and a good reflector of all wavelengths, it is not. This was determined by comparing light absorbed/reflected by a sample of a Porites skeleton to that absorbed/reflected by a reflectance standard (Spectralon 99% diffuse standard.) As Figure 30 shows, violet/ blue wavelengths are poorly absorbed (relative to red wavelengths) by the coral skeleton and are thus reflected back through the coral tissue containing zooxanthellae. On the other hand, the skeleton absorbs red wavelengths with better efficiency; hence less red light is reflected. Figure 30. Porites skeleton absorbance, 380nm - 750nm. Effects of Hue on Zooxanthellae Photosynthesis Light sources of different 'colors' produce different photosynthetic responses but these are not due to the quality of the light per se, but instead the absorption of violet and blue light by carotenoids (including -carotene,and xanthophylls diatoxanthin, diatoxanthin, and diadinoxanthin.) -carotene is known to transfer collected energy to chlorophyll a, and hence photosystem reaction centers, in an inefficient manner. Results of these experiments suggest that violet, blue, and red light with peaks away from the absorption maxima of carotenoids present in zooxanthellae are most efficient in the promotion of photosynthesis. See Table 9. Table 9. Absorption Peaks of Zooxanthellae Carotenoids. Pigments dissolved in acetone. Peaks can vary as much as ~5nm when using other solvents. None Major Peak (nm) Minor Peak 1 (nm) Minor Peak 2 (nm) Diadinoxanthin 448 478 425 Diatoxanthin 453.9 482.3 427 Dinoxanthin 441.5 470.7 417.9 -carotene 453.5 479.9 426 LEDs with peaks of 400 and 420nm were more efficient than those with peaks at ~450 and ~480nm. The combination of LEDs producing red light (at 631nm and 657nm) was most efficient with practically none of its output absorbed by carotenoids. Low PPFD, Ultraviolet Radiation, and Coral Growth Reports of excellent coral growth under very low PPFD values (as low as 25 µmol·m²·sec, as reported by 'hobby' grade quantum meters) can be explained in a couple of ways. The lamps being used, according to the vendor (www.uniquecorals.com), utilize LEDs producing light at 400nm and 420nm. This light combination is efficient in the promotion to photosynthesis, but is poorly reported by inexpensive PAR meters, since the sensor's response does not 'see' these wavelengths very well. In addition, the 400nm LED ('UV' LED) produces violet light below the detection limit of most PAR sensors (a correction factor of ~40% was used in calculating rates of photosynthesis (rETRs) for the 400nm LED.) It appears that at least some ultraviolet light is used in photosynthesis. This is based on the observation of a very low PPFD value (<1 µmol·m²·sec, as measured with a 'lab grade' quantum meter) when testing the black light for its effect on photosynthesis. A second clue is the activity of the protective xanthophylls (induced by low pH within the photosynthetic apparatus) when the 'UV' LED was used. Undoubtedly, some, if not most, of photosynthesis occurred due to exposure to violet wavelengths (380 - 400nm) which even the Li-Cor meter does not 'see.' Photosynthesis does not just stop when the transition is made from visible violet to invisible long-wave ultraviolet radiation (say, between365nm and 380nm). Note that photopigments such as chlorophylls, peridinin, etc. absorb some ultraviolet radiation (see Table 10). Table 10. Absorption of UV Radiation by Zooxanthellae Photopigments None UV Absorption Peak Lowest Absorption Reported Chlorophyll a 382.7 nm Down to 350nm Chlorophyll c² 395.5 nm Down to 350nm Peridinin Absorbance hump between 325 & 350nm Diadinoxanthin * Down to 300nm Diatoxanthin * Down to 325nm Dinoxanthin * Down to 350nm -carotene * Down to 325nm Additionally, pigments in zooxanthellae (MAAs, or mycosporine-like amino acids) protect zooxanthellae against ultraviolet radiation do so only up to about 340 nm. If the energy of UV-A light between 340 nm and 380 nm is absorbed by photopigments, but not used in photosynthesis, how else would it be dissipated? See Table 11. Table 11. Ultraviolet Radiation Absorption by Zooxanthellae 'Sunscreens' or Mycosporine-like Amino Acids (MAAs). Mycosporine-like Amino Acids Maximum Absorption Mycosporine-Glycine 310 nm Palythine Serine Sulfate 320 nm Palythine Serine 320 nm Palythine 320 nm Mycosporine-NMA: Serine 325 nm Mycosporine-NMA: Threonine 328 nm Mycosporine -2: Glycine 331 nm Palythinol 332 nm Phorphyra 334 nm Shinorine 334 nm However, there is little doubt that very strong doses of UV-A sometimes seen in aquaria (through use of unshielded metal halide or mercury vapor lamps) can be harmful. See here for details: http://www.advancedaquarist.com/2004/8/aafeature Although these results were generated through use of LEDs, it is possible that they could be applied to other light sources, such as metal halide and fluorescent lamps, especially those with high kelvin ratings. These results will likely generate some debate. There are certainly limitations in the experimental protocol, in particular the short-term exposure to a specific light source (less than 2 hours with each LED.) However, water motion was standardized and food consumption (or lack thereof) was not an issue - a potential pitfall for long-term light/coral growth studies. Perhaps the real story here is the photo-protective responses (the xanthophyll cycle) of zooxanthellae to different light sources, especially red light. Why is there little, if any, protective cycling of xanthophylls when strong red light is used? Strong doses of red light can regulate zooxanthellae densities even to the point of bleaching (Kinzie et al., 1984). What are the long term effects of red light on captive corals? This deserves investigation, and will be the subject of a future report. Materials and Methods Light intensity was measured with a Li-Cor BioSciences' LI-1400 data logger and 2-pi cosine-corrected LI-189 underwater quantum sensor (Li-Cor, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA). This instrument is among the gold standards for measuring photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). The approximate response of this sensor is shown in Figure 31. Corrections were made to the PPFD measurements of the UV and 420nm LED fixtures since they produce substantial amounts of radiation in the ultraviolet range. Using information supplied by the Ocean Optics spectrometer (described below), the correction was 6% for the 420nm LEDs, and ~40% for the Ultraviolet LEDs. Figure 31. This sensor slightly underreports violet wavelengths (~400-420nm) and red wavelengths (~690-700nm). After information on Li-Cor's website. Spectral data were gathered by an Ocean Optics spectrometer and SpectraSuite software (Ocean Optics, Dunedin, Florida, USA). The fiber optic patch cord was held at a 45 angle (through use of a jig) to a 99% diffuse reflectance standard (Spectralon, manufactured by Labsphere, North Sutton, New Hampshire, USA). The spectrometer's signal was corrected for electrical dark, with a boxcar setting of 2, and integration time of 66 milliseconds. Fifty measurements were averaged to ensure stable readings. Graphical displays (such as Figure 2) were cut and pasted into this Micro Soft Word document. Tabular data were exported to a proprietary Micro Soft Excel program for further analyses and graphed (such as Figures 3 and 4.) Absorbances (such as Figure 2) were determined through use of the SpectraSuite software. Measurements were corrected for electrical dark, with a boxcar averaging of 2, and 50 measurements were averaged. The reference spectrum (produced by a clear 60-watt incandescent lamp 'bounced' off the Spectralon reference material), and dark reference were determined. The SpectraSuite calculated absorbance when commanded to do so. See Figure 32. Figure 32. Labsphere's Spectralon reflectance standard (left) and sectioned coral skeleton (right.) The spectrometer's patch cord, angled at 45, measures spectral quality. Photosynthesis data were determined through use of a Walz Junior-PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulated) fluorometer (Walz GmbH, Effeltrich, Germany). Walz's WinControl-3 software was programmed to measure the Yield of Photosystem II, and energy dissipation routes including NPQ (non-photosynthetic quenching by the xanthophyll cycle) and NO (quenching by other routes). Figure 33. A screen shot of Walz's WinControl-3 as it processes multiple data points to estimate how light promotes photosynthesis in zooxanthellae. The Junior-PAM fluorometer exploits the relationships between competing processes for light energy. The energy can be used in photosynthesis, or dissipated as heat in a process called Non-Photochemical Quenching (NPQ) or Other Pathways (collectively called NO). Figure 34 details these relationships. In all cases, Photochemistry (called Yield of Photosystem II, or Y (II)), plus Y (NPQ) - where excessive energy is shunted away from the photosynthetic apparatus by the Xanthophyll Cycle) - and Y (NO), where energy is diverted in ways other than NPQ = 1. In short, Y(II) + Y(NPQ) + Y(NO) = 1 Figure 34. Energy pathways in photosynthesis. LED fixtures supplied the light in these experiments (except for the black light experiment.) These have the advantages of supplying near-monochromatic light while generating very little heat (a real plus when working with corals in small amounts of water. Low heat also prevents damage to the fluorometer's fiber optic cord.) These LED units are available through Build My LED, Austin, Texas, USA (www.buildmyled.com). A small fragment of a Porites corals (tentatively identified as Porites lobata) was placed in a plastic container containing 2 gallons of artificial sea water. A specially built jig held the lamps above the container, and light intensity was adjusted through adjusting the height of the fixture above the container, or by a dimmer. Consistent water motion was maintained through use of a magnetic stirrer and stir bar. The PAM fluorometer's fiber optic cord was held ~1mm from the coral's surface at a 60 angle by a jig built specifically for the purpose. Temperature and pH were monitored through use of a datalogger (Hach HQ40d multimeter and pH probe). The coral was allowed to dark-acclimate overnight before minimum chlorophyll fluorescence (Fo) and maximum fluorescence (Fm - through application of a photosynthetically-saturating pulse of light) were determined. The coral was then exposed to light intensities that were incrementally adjusted upwards, and Fm' (maximum chlorophyll fluorescence while illuminated) measurements were made 15-20 minutes after light intensity was increased. Yields of Photochemistry, Non-Photochemical Quenching (of chlorophyll fluorescence) and NO (other energy dissipation pathways) were determined. When the Yield of any of these processes is multiplied by the light intensity level (PPFD, or Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density, as determined by a PAR meter), we can arrive at an estimate of the relative electron flow from Photosystem II to Photosystem I. The electron flow is called ETR for Electron Transport Rate. Since we did not measure the amount of light actually absorbed by the coral and its symbionts, this is called the Relative ETR, or rETR. The coral's zooxanthellae were allowed to acclimate to darkness for 20-30 minutes after each round of testing. Data were exported from Walz's WinControl-3 software to Micro Soft Excel for further processing and charting. Measurements of ultraviolet radiation were made by a UV radiometer (Model UVX, manufactured by UVP, LLC, Upland, California, USA) equipped with a UV-A sensor (recommended for measurements at 365nm, with a sensitivity bandwidth of 335-380nm). Ultraviolet-B radiation was measured with a sensor made for measurements of radiation at 310nm, with a sensitivity bandwidth of 280-340nm. See Figure 35. Figure 35. This radiometer reports UV-A or UV-B radiation intensity in units of microWatts per square centimeter (µW·cm².) Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank Nick Klase of Build My LED (www.buildmyled.com) for donating the LED fixtures used in these experiments. These experiments would have been impossible (or at least much more difficult) to perform without them. References Braddock, B., S. Mercer, C. Rachelson and S. Sapp, 2001. Effects of red and blue light on the rate of photosynthesis. http://spot.colorado.edu/~basey/bluer.htm Dring, M., and K. Luning, 1985. Emerson enhancement effect and quantum yield of photosynthesis for marine macroalgae in simulated underwater light fields. Mar. Biol., 87(2): 109-117. Gil-Turnes, S. and J. Corredor, 1981. Studies of photosynthetic pigments of zooxanthellae in Caribbean hermatypic corals. Proc. 4th Int. Coral Reef Symp., Manila. 2: 51-53. Hill, R., A. Larkum, O. Prasil, D. Kramer, M. Szabo, V. Kumar, and P.J. Ralph, 2012. Light-induced dissociation of antenna complexes in the symbionts of scleractinian corals correlates with sensitivity to coral bleaching. Coral Reefs, 31(4): 963-975. Jeffrey, S., R. Mantoura, and S. Wright (Editors), 1997. Phytoplankton Pigments in Oceanography, Guidelines to Modern Methods. UNESCO Publishing, Paris. 668 pp. Kinzie, R., P. Jokiel, and R. York, 1984. Effects of light of altered spectral composition on coral zooxanthellae associations and on zooxanthellae in vitro. Mar. Biol., 78: 239-248. Kirk, J.T.O., 2000. Light and Photosynthesis in Aquatic Ecosystems. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K. 509 pp. Telfer, A., 2002. What is beta-carotene doing in the photosystem II reaction centre? Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lon. B. Biol. Sci., 357(1426): 1431-1439. Trocine, R., J. Rice, and G. Wells, 1982. Photosynthetic response of seagrasses to ultraviolet-A radiation and the influence of visible light intensity. Plant Physiol., 69, 341-344. Wijgerde, T., A. van Melis, C. Silva, M. Leal, L. Vogels, C. Mutter, and R. Osinga, 2014. Red light represses the photophysiology of the scleractinian coral Stylophora pistillata. Plos ONE 9(3): e92781. Doi:10.1371/journal pone.0092781 View the full article

Click through to see the images. Tenji describes their two-of-a-kind jellyfish archways: Aqua Planet Islan in Seoul, South Korea opened to the public in April of 2014. The Tenji team worked with Reynolds Polymer Technology to design two spectacular 1200 gallon walk-through jellyfish aquariums. The horseshoe-shaped jellyfish aquariums required extensive design and development in order to provide the optimal flow necessary to successfully display jellyfish. Tenji used their expertise and computer modeling to create a design that blends elements of both a conventional cylinder jellyfish aquarium and a kreisel tank. The bottom of the tank is plumbed like a standard cylinder jellyfish tank. However, the top two "chimneys" of the tank have flow boxes like a kreisel. The chimney helps with water skimming, which is important for jellyfish husbandry and tank maintenance. Good surface skimming is essential in jellyfish aquariums because they are fed large amounts of Selco enriched brine shrimp which often creates an oil slick on the water surface. Keeping the water surface free of oil helps to maintain water quality and prevents an unclean appearance (think scum on a bath tub). Each tank has two chimneys to ensure correct flow and the even distribution of jellyfish throughout the tanks. For exhibit maintenance, the two chimneys at the top of the tank can be opened to allow siphons and cleaning tools into the tank. Tenji carefully modeled the curve of the tank and the placement and size of the chimneys to allow an aquarist to reach everywhere in the tank. There are also magnets on the tank to allow cleaning in the hard to reach areas. Finally, they designed each tank with a set of Hartford Loops that allow for easy bleaching and cleaning of the tank without a loss of excess saltwater. Exhibit Facts: The two identical tanks each holding 1,200 gallons. The top of the tanks are 9.5 feet tall. The top of the arch is 6.5 feet. Tenji designed the aquariums, LSS, water flow control and husbandry protocols. Each aquarium holds approximately 200 Moon Jellyfish. View the full article

Click through to see the images. Tenji describes their two-of-a-kind jellyfish archways: Aqua Planet Islan in Seoul, South Korea opened to the public in April of 2014. The Tenji team worked with Reynolds Polymer Technology to design two spectacular 1200 gallon walk-through jellyfish aquariums. The horseshoe-shaped jellyfish aquariums required extensive design and development in order to provide the optimal flow necessary to successfully display jellyfish. Tenji used their expertise and computer modeling to create a design that blends elements of both a conventional cylinder jellyfish aquarium and a kreisel tank. The bottom of the tank is plumbed like a standard cylinder jellyfish tank. However, the top two "chimneys" of the tank have flow boxes like a kreisel. The chimney helps with water skimming, which is important for jellyfish husbandry and tank maintenance. Good surface skimming is essential in jellyfish aquariums because they are fed large amounts of Selco enriched brine shrimp which often creates an oil slick on the water surface. Keeping the water surface free of oil helps to maintain water quality and prevents an unclean appearance (think scum on a bath tub). Each tank has two chimneys to ensure correct flow and the even distribution of jellyfish throughout the tanks. For exhibit maintenance, the two chimneys at the top of the tank can be opened to allow siphons and cleaning tools into the tank. Tenji carefully modeled the curve of the tank and the placement and size of the chimneys to allow an aquarist to reach everywhere in the tank. There are also magnets on the tank to allow cleaning in the hard to reach areas. Finally, they designed each tank with a set of Hartford Loops that allow for easy bleaching and cleaning of the tank without a loss of excess saltwater. Exhibit Facts: The two identical tanks each holding 1,200 gallons. The top of the tanks are 9.5 feet tall. The top of the arch is 6.5 feet. Tenji designed the aquariums, LSS, water flow control and husbandry protocols. Each aquarium holds approximately 200 Moon Jellyfish. View the full article

Click through to see the images. Tenji describes their two-of-a-kind jellyfish archways: Aqua Planet Islan in Seoul, South Korea opened to the public in April of 2014. The Tenji team worked with Reynolds Polymer Technology to design two spectacular 1200 gallon walk-through jellyfish aquariums. The horseshoe-shaped jellyfish aquariums required extensive design and development in order to provide the optimal flow necessary to successfully display jellyfish. Tenji used their expertise and computer modeling to create a design that blends elements of both a conventional cylinder jellyfish aquarium and a kreisel tank. The bottom of the tank is plumbed like a standard cylinder jellyfish tank. However, the top two "chimneys" of the tank have flow boxes like a kreisel. The chimney helps with water skimming, which is important for jellyfish husbandry and tank maintenance. Good surface skimming is essential in jellyfish aquariums because they are fed large amounts of Selco enriched brine shrimp which often creates an oil slick on the water surface. Keeping the water surface free of oil helps to maintain water quality and prevents an unclean appearance (think scum on a bath tub). Each tank has two chimneys to ensure correct flow and the even distribution of jellyfish throughout the tanks. For exhibit maintenance, the two chimneys at the top of the tank can be opened to allow siphons and cleaning tools into the tank. Tenji carefully modeled the curve of the tank and the placement and size of the chimneys to allow an aquarist to reach everywhere in the tank. There are also magnets on the tank to allow cleaning in the hard to reach areas. Finally, they designed each tank with a set of Hartford Loops that allow for easy bleaching and cleaning of the tank without a loss of excess saltwater. Exhibit Facts: The two identical tanks each holding 1,200 gallons. The top of the tanks are 9.5 feet tall. The top of the arch is 6.5 feet. Tenji designed the aquariums, LSS, water flow control and husbandry protocols. Each aquarium holds approximately 200 Moon Jellyfish. View the full article

Click through to see the images. The scientists originally thought there was a single species of golden bass on deep reefs off Curaçao, but DNA data, distinct color patterns, and morphology revealed three. The study describing one of those, L. santi—the deepest known species of Liopropoma in the Atlantic Ocean, was published in the open access journal ZooKeys. Dr. Carole C. Baldwin and Dr. D. Ross Robertson, who discovered the new species, propose the common name "spot-tail golden bass" to distinguish it from the other golden bass species, referencing the dark spot on the lower part of the tail fin. It appears to be more closely related to the other new deep-reef golden bass from Curaçao, Liopropoma olneyi, and members of a related genus, Bathyanthias, than to species of Liopropoma such as the candy and peppermint basses inhabiting shallower reefs. "With Bathyanthias falling out within the western Atlantic Liopropoma clade," notes Baldwin, "further study of the classification of this group is needed." The researchers also note that related groups of Liopropoma species have different depth distributions, suggesting that depth may have played a role in their evolution. To collect deep-reef fish specimens, the scientists are diving to 300 m off Curaçao using a manned submersible, the Curasub. "This underexplored zone between 60 and 300 m in the tropical southern Caribbean is revealing extraordinary biodiversity, including a wealth of new species of beautifully colored fishes," says Baldwin. "It's a zone that science has largely missed because it's too deep to access using scuba gear, and deep-diving submersibles rarely stop at such shallow depths." ### As part of the Smithsonian Institution's Deep Reef Observation Project (DROP), Smithsonian scientists are working to improve our knowledge of Caribbean deep-reef biodiversity. Journal Reference: Baldwin CC, Robertson RD (2014) A new Liopropoma sea bass (Serranidae, Epinephelinae, Liopropomini) from deep reefs off Curaçao, southern Caribbean, with comments on depth distributions of western Atlantic liopropomins. ZooKeys 409: 71–92. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.409.7249 [via Pensoft, Creative Commons] View the full article

Click through to see the images. Matt is a professional TV producer so his videos are very high quality. He's also an extremely personable host as he shares his personal experiences about reefkeeping (and driving an automobile ) in China. Matt plans a total of five to ten videos for this series. Here are his first two episodes. In the first episode, Matt introduces himself and talks about the construction of his office and its 40x40x30" 200 gallon reef tank. In the second episode, Matt visits two Chinese LFS and takes home some corals and fish to his office tank as well as his home tank. " height="383" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="680"> "> "> " height="383" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="680"> "> "> View the full article

Click through to see the images. Press Release The MACNA 2014 committee is proud to announce an exceptional selection for our Keynote Speaker to conclude the Saturday evening banquet. Dr. Luiz Rocha is a professional Ichthyologist, currently the curator of Ichthyology at the California Academy of Sciences. His research deals with the genetics and evolution of lots of different reef fish, many of which are well represented in the marine aquarium hobby. His close work with the Steinhart Aquarium gives Dr. Rocha a unique perspective on both the science and the hobby of keeping marine aquarium fish and his travels have afforded him the opportunity to visit some of the remotest and most exotic reef locales, with plenty of discoveries to boot. We expect Dr. Rocha to present one of the most entertaining and information dense Keynote presentations that MACNA has ever seen, and for that the banquet is not to be missed. Full details about Dr. Rocha can be found on the MACNA 2014 website. View the full article

Click through to see the images. From the University of Georgia Fish communities key to balancing nutrients in coral reefs, UGA study finds Different fish species combinations, similar nitrogen-phosphorus ratio found in four coral reefs Coral reefs are among the most productive—and imperiled—ecosystems in the world. One of the many threats they face is pollution from runoff and poorly treated wastewater, which upsets the delicate balance of nutrients they require. Jacob Allgeier doing field work on the reef Recent research led by University of Georgia ecologists sheds new light on the natural nutrient dynamics of coral reefs, particularly the often overlooked but critical role of fish. Their findings, published in Global Change Biology, could help inform future research and coral conservation efforts. Coral reefs occur in tropical and subtropical coastal waters that are naturally low in nitrogen and phosphorus. A certain amount of these nutrients is essential for coral growth, but too much can increase the likelihood of coral disease and death. Lead author Jacob Allgeier, who conducted his research while at UGA and received his doctorate from the Odum School of Ecology in 2013, has spent years studying coral reefs in the Caribbean. He suspected the fishes that gather on reefs had a role to play in regulating nutrient levels and set out to determine if—and how—they did so. Allgeier, now a postdoctoral research associate at North Carolina State University, and his colleagues established study sites at healthy reefs in the Caribbean dominated by four different types of corals, as well as nearby mangrove forests and sea grass beds for the sake of comparison. First, they surveyed the fish communities present at each site, documenting fish numbers, species and sizes at each location, finding more than 71,000 individual fishes from 158 species. Allgeier used field measurements and modeling techniques to estimate how much nitrogen and phosphorus fishes from 144 of those 158 species were storing in their bodies and how much they were introducing to their environment through excretion. Their estimates accounted for more than 99 percent of the total body mass of fishes at all sites. They incorporated these data into mathematical models to determine how much nitrogen and phosphorus entire fish communities were storing and introducing at each site. They found, first, that fish did indeed provide a substantial amount of nitrogen and phosphorus, at levels that were largely determined by the structure of the fish community. The fish communities that stored and supplied the most nutrients tended to have high levels of species diversity, but were often dominated by just a few species, especially large-bodied ones. A key finding was that although the overall amounts of nutrients supplied by the fish communities differed substantially across sites, the ratio at which they occurred was typically very similar—approximately 20 parts nitrogen to one part phosphorus—at all four coral reefs, but, importantly, not at the mangrove or seagrass bed sites. "Our results suggest that the consistent ratio at which fishes cycle nutrients on these reefs may provide important insight as to the demands for nutrients by coral," Allgeier said. He and his colleagues reviewed the coral literature and found that previous experimental studies have shown that corals thrive when nutrients occur at almost exactly the proportions provided by fish in the study, and tend to decline in health or die when nutrient proportions deviate from this range. Allgeier said that the team's findings could eventually provide important guidance for managing nutrient inputs into coral reef ecosystems, informing pollution control measures and fishing regulations, for instance. "The crux of the story is that changing the ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus may have negative consequences for coral reefs," Allgeier said. "It's important to incorporate fish nutrient dynamics into the conservation of these ecosystems. Fish are clearly playing an important role; we now just need to better understand exactly what this role is." The study's coauthors were associate professor Amy Rosemond of the UGA Odum School, Craig A. Layman of Florida International University and Peter J. Mumby of the University of Queensland. The research was supported by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the National Science Foundation, the Pew Charitable Trusts and the Australian Research Council.The paper is available online at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.12566/full. View the full article

Click through to see the images. From the University of Georgia Fish communities key to balancing nutrients in coral reefs, UGA study finds Different fish species combinations, similar nitrogen-phosphorus ratio found in four coral reefs Coral reefs are among the most productive—and imperiled—ecosystems in the world. One of the many threats they face is pollution from runoff and poorly treated wastewater, which upsets the delicate balance of nutrients they require. Jacob Allgeier doing field work on the reef Recent research led by University of Georgia ecologists sheds new light on the natural nutrient dynamics of coral reefs, particularly the often overlooked but critical role of fish. Their findings, published in Global Change Biology, could help inform future research and coral conservation efforts. Coral reefs occur in tropical and subtropical coastal waters that are naturally low in nitrogen and phosphorus. A certain amount of these nutrients is essential for coral growth, but too much can increase the likelihood of coral disease and death. Lead author Jacob Allgeier, who conducted his research while at UGA and received his doctorate from the Odum School of Ecology in 2013, has spent years studying coral reefs in the Caribbean. He suspected the fishes that gather on reefs had a role to play in regulating nutrient levels and set out to determine if—and how—they did so. Allgeier, now a postdoctoral research associate at North Carolina State University, and his colleagues established study sites at healthy reefs in the Caribbean dominated by four different types of corals, as well as nearby mangrove forests and sea grass beds for the sake of comparison. First, they surveyed the fish communities present at each site, documenting fish numbers, species and sizes at each location, finding more than 71,000 individual fishes from 158 species. Allgeier used field measurements and modeling techniques to estimate how much nitrogen and phosphorus fishes from 144 of those 158 species were storing in their bodies and how much they were introducing to their environment through excretion. Their estimates accounted for more than 99 percent of the total body mass of fishes at all sites. They incorporated these data into mathematical models to determine how much nitrogen and phosphorus entire fish communities were storing and introducing at each site. They found, first, that fish did indeed provide a substantial amount of nitrogen and phosphorus, at levels that were largely determined by the structure of the fish community. The fish communities that stored and supplied the most nutrients tended to have high levels of species diversity, but were often dominated by just a few species, especially large-bodied ones. A key finding was that although the overall amounts of nutrients supplied by the fish communities differed substantially across sites, the ratio at which they occurred was typically very similar—approximately 20 parts nitrogen to one part phosphorus—at all four coral reefs, but, importantly, not at the mangrove or seagrass bed sites. "Our results suggest that the consistent ratio at which fishes cycle nutrients on these reefs may provide important insight as to the demands for nutrients by coral," Allgeier said. He and his colleagues reviewed the coral literature and found that previous experimental studies have shown that corals thrive when nutrients occur at almost exactly the proportions provided by fish in the study, and tend to decline in health or die when nutrient proportions deviate from this range. Allgeier said that the team's findings could eventually provide important guidance for managing nutrient inputs into coral reef ecosystems, informing pollution control measures and fishing regulations, for instance. "The crux of the story is that changing the ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus may have negative consequences for coral reefs," Allgeier said. "It's important to incorporate fish nutrient dynamics into the conservation of these ecosystems. Fish are clearly playing an important role; we now just need to better understand exactly what this role is." The study's coauthors were associate professor Amy Rosemond of the UGA Odum School, Craig A. Layman of Florida International University and Peter J. Mumby of the University of Queensland. The research was supported by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the National Science Foundation, the Pew Charitable Trusts and the Australian Research Council.The paper is available online at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.12566/full. View the full article

Click through to see the images. A new tiny species of crayfish from the swamps of coastal eastern Australia Hidden in one of Australia's most developed and fastest growing areas lives one of the world's smallest freshwater crayfish species. Robert B McCormack the Team Leader for the Australian Crayfish Project described the new species belonging to the genus Gramastacus, after 8 years of research in the swamps and creeks of coastal New South Wales, Australia. The study was published in the open access journal ZooKeys. Being a small crayfish species it has remained undescribed and undiscovered in one of the fastest developing regions of Australia. Only one other species of Gramastacus crayfish is known and it occurs some 900 km away in the Grampians region of Victoria. This new species is found in lowland ephemeral habitats surrounding coastal lakes and lagoons from Wamberal Lagoon, north along the coastal strip to Wallis Lake. Being dependent on regular natural flooding and drying cycles, only lowland, swampy areas are suitable for this tiny crayfish. Each crayfish digs a small rounded cross-section burrow up to one metre deep into the water table to survive the drying cycle. Some areas are riddled with these small burrows as they are a very prolific species and can occur in very high numbers in small habitat areas. The newly described crayfish are found in one of Australia's most developed regions. Unfortunately, this means that much of their habitat has been lost in the past as these ephemeral areas are the first to be drained or reclaimed to make way for agriculture, industry, housing developments, golf courses, infrastructure, etc. Now, being found and officially described, this crayfish must be considered in any further developments and hopefully future habitat loss will be reduced. The scattered populations of Gramastacus seem highly fragmented and many are increasingly threatened by a range of risks other than human development. Invasive crayfish, pest fish species like plague minnows and swordtails, rising sea levels and falling water tables all are increasing dangers. Luckily, the large number of National Parks and Reserves along the coastal strip provides safe refuges for some populations. [via Pensoft, creative commons] View the full article

Click through to see the images. A new tiny species of crayfish from the swamps of coastal eastern Australia Hidden in one of Australia's most developed and fastest growing areas lives one of the world's smallest freshwater crayfish species. Robert B McCormack the Team Leader for the Australian Crayfish Project described the new species belonging to the genus Gramastacus, after 8 years of research in the swamps and creeks of coastal New South Wales, Australia. The study was published in the open access journal ZooKeys. Being a small crayfish species it has remained undescribed and undiscovered in one of the fastest developing regions of Australia. Only one other species of Gramastacus crayfish is known and it occurs some 900 km away in the Grampians region of Victoria. This new species is found in lowland ephemeral habitats surrounding coastal lakes and lagoons from Wamberal Lagoon, north along the coastal strip to Wallis Lake. Being dependent on regular natural flooding and drying cycles, only lowland, swampy areas are suitable for this tiny crayfish. Each crayfish digs a small rounded cross-section burrow up to one metre deep into the water table to survive the drying cycle. Some areas are riddled with these small burrows as they are a very prolific species and can occur in very high numbers in small habitat areas. The newly described crayfish are found in one of Australia's most developed regions. Unfortunately, this means that much of their habitat has been lost in the past as these ephemeral areas are the first to be drained or reclaimed to make way for agriculture, industry, housing developments, golf courses, infrastructure, etc. Now, being found and officially described, this crayfish must be considered in any further developments and hopefully future habitat loss will be reduced. The scattered populations of Gramastacus seem highly fragmented and many are increasingly threatened by a range of risks other than human development. Invasive crayfish, pest fish species like plague minnows and swordtails, rising sea levels and falling water tables all are increasing dangers. Luckily, the large number of National Parks and Reserves along the coastal strip provides safe refuges for some populations. [via Pensoft, creative commons] View the full article

Click through to see the images. Have you ever wondered why you're unsuccessful in the husbandry of certain corals? Perhaps you've emulated the aquarium of a friend or one you've seen in a shop. Every detail has been copied. Why does the success others have seem to elude you with certain corals? As with many endeavors, the devil is in the details. While some might contribute lack of success to lighting or water chemistry issues, it is certain that many failures can be attributed to water motion. Estimating water velocity visually is difficult - the clear waters of reef aquaria don't allow easy visualizations. This article will offer insights of some of the popular water pumps available to hobbyists and can aid them in selection of the proper pump for your aquarium as well as estimating proper placement for a few coral species. Hundreds of water velocity data points were gathered with an electronic meter and graphed to allow a visualization of water movement in an aquarium. Tunze (technically Aquarientechnik GmbH, and pronounced 'tune-zah') is a familiar name to most serious reef aquarium hobbyists. Headquartered in Penzburg, Germany, Tunze has been manufacturing products for the aquarium market since 1960. Their products are noted for quality and upper-end pricing. This month, we'll examine the performance of Tunze Turbelle stream 2 pumps. This report follows a similar article where Tunze nanostream pumps were tested (see http://www.advancedaquarist.com/2013/4/review for details). Many reviews of aquarium pumps examine only the pump's capacity, usually expressed as gallons per hour, or liters per hour. While this metric is fine for comparative purposes, we must realize that 'gallons per hour' is meaningless on a real reef. Researchers often test for, and report water movement as, velocity (feet per second, for example). Scientists have determined that corals have differing preferences for water velocity. Defining Velocity Zones and Why You Should Care Water velocity has long been recognized as an important factor on natural coral reefs and there is much valuable information available to hobbyists. The categories chosen for this article were developed by one of the more prolific researchers of coral reef water flow dynamics - Kenneth Sebens. In his 1997 work, Sebens categorized water velocities into 4 zones. Low: Velocity of <1 to 5 centimeters per second (<~1/2" to 2" per second). This zone is periodically found on deeper (>25m, or ~82 feet depth) fore-reefs, isolated tide pools (such as at low tide), lagoons, and back-reefs. Moderate: Velocity of 6 to 20 centimeters per second (~2" to 8" per second). Mid- to shallow-fore reefs often experience these flows. High: Water speed of 21 to 50 centimeters per second (~8" to 20" inches per second). High velocities found in surf zones. Very High: Velocity exceeds 50 centimeters per second (>20" per second). Also found in some surf zones, storm surges, reef spur and grooves, etc. Note that these categories are not all inclusive - oceanic water velocity can sometimes be measured in meters per second. Of course, this information is of little use without specifics. In a recent excellent article Wijgerde (2013, http://www.advancedaquarist.com/2013/12/aafeature) lists the optimal water velocities for a number of stony and soft corals as well as gorgonians. See Table 1. Table 1. Optimal Water Velocity for Selected Corals (From Wijgerde, 2013) Coral Optimum Velocity for Prey Capture (inches/sec) Acanthogorgia vegae 3.1 Agaricia agaricites 7.1 Agaricia agaricites (bifacial) 11.8 Agaricia agaricites (horizontal) 7.1 to 19.7 Briareum asbestinum 2.3 to 4.7 Dendronephthya hemprichii 3.9 to 9.8 Eunicea tournefortis 2.4 to 4.72 Galaxea fascicularis 3.9 Lophelia petusa 1.0 Melithaea ochracea 3.1 Plexaura dichotoma 2.4 to 4.72 Porites porites 3.5 to 4.33 Pseudopterogorgia americana 2.4 to 4.72 Subergorgia suberasa 3.1 See Wijgerde's article for details. Water velocity measurements I've made at ~15' depth on reefs here in Hawaii (on a calm day) show an oscillating water motion of about 4 to 6 inches per second. These reefs are dominated by Porites lobata, Porites lutea, Pocillopora meandrina, and Pocillopora eydouxi. During times of strong swells, the water is much too dangerous to enter, and velocities are certainly best reported in feet per second. It should be clear that water motion is very important in an aquarium. In addition to optimal feeding velocities, water motion plays an important role in detritus removal, waste removal, gas exchange, delivery of nutrients and micro-nutrients through maintenance of a thin boundary layer, and so on. Turbelle stream Pumps Tunze currently markets 6 Turbelle stream pumps in the United States (7 pumps if the count the 6105's two configurations - a large (2.49" diameter) and small outlet - 1.96" diameter). All Turbelle stream pumps utilize propeller technology for creating water motion. See Figure 1. Figure 1. A Tunze propeller pump. We'll now begin our examination of Tunze Turbelle stream propeller pumps, beginning with: Pump: 6065 Turbelle stream 2 Maximum Discharge Velocity: 2.93 feet per second Discharge Diameter: 1.97 inches Volts: 121.1 Amps: 0.18 Watts: 12 Hertz: 60 Controllable (by Tunze Multicontroller): No Tunze recommends this pump for aquaria sized: 65 to 210 gallons (US) Figure 2. Velocity zones for the 6065 Turbelle stream 2 propeller pump. Zone 4 = >20"/sec; Zone 3 = 8"-20"/sec; Zone 2 = 2"-8"/sec; Zone 1 = 0.5" to 2"/sec. Figure 3. A polynomial trend line allows an estimation of water velocity at various distances from the pump's discharge. Pump: 6085 Turbelle stream 2 Maximum Discharge Velocity: 4.02 feet per second Discharge Diameter: 1.97 inches Volts: 120.2 Amps: 0.18 Watts: 15.7 Hertz: 59.9 Controllable (by Tunze Multicontroller): No Tunze recommends this pump for aquaria sized: 105-265 gallons (US) Figure 4. Velocity zones for the 6085 Turbelle stream 2 propeller pump. Zone 4 = >20"/sec; Zone 3 = 8"-20"/sec; Zone 2 = 2"-8"/sec; Zone 1 = 0.5" to 2"/sec. Figure 5. 6085 Turbelle stream velocity data. No trend line is included as the best fit went into negative territory. Still, valuable information is apparent. Pump: 6105 Turbelle stream 2 (large outlet) Maximum Discharge Velocity: 3.88 feet per second Discharge Diameter: 2.48 inches Volts: 120.1 Amps: 0.35 Watts: 20.2 Hertz: 59.9 Controllable (by Tunze Multicontroller): Yes Tunze recommends this pump for aquaria sized: 50 to 525 gallons (US) Figure 6. Velocity zones for the 6105 Turbelle stream 2 propeller pump (large outlet). Zone 4 = >20"/sec; Zone 3 = 8"-20"/sec; Zone 2 = 2"-8"/sec; Zone 1 = 0.5" to 2"/sec. Figure 7. A polynomial trend line allows an estimation of water velocity at various distances from the pump's discharge. Pump: 6105 Turbelle stream 2 (small outlet) Maximum Discharge Velocity: 4.12 feet per second Discharge Diameter: 1.96 inches Volts: 119.2 Amps: 0.33 Watts: 19.6 Hertz: 59.9 Tunze recommends this pump for aquaria sized: 50 to 525 gallons (US) Figure 8. Velocity zones for the 6105 Turbelle stream 2 propeller pump (small outlet). Zone 4 = >20"/sec; Zone 3 = 8"-20"/sec; Zone 2 = 2"-8"/sec; Zone 1 = 0.5" to 2"/sec. Figure 9. A polynomial trend line allows an estimation of water velocity at various distances from the pump's discharge. Pump: 6125 Turbelle stream 2 Maximum Discharge Velocity: 3.63 feet per second Discharge Diameter: 2.48 inches Volts: 121.7 Amps: 0.36 Watts: 26.2 Hertz: 60 Controllable (by Tunze Multicontroller): No Tunze recommends this pump for aquaria sized: 105 to 525 gallons (US) Figure 10. Velocity zones for the 6125 Turbelle stream 2 propeller pump. Zone 4 = >20"/sec; Zone 3 = 8"-20"/sec; Zone 2 = 2"-8"/sec; Zone 1 = 0.5" to 2"/sec. Figure 11. A polynomial trend line allows an estimation of water velocity at various distances from the pump's discharge. Pump: 6155 Turbelle stream 2 Maximum Discharge Velocity: 4.10 feet per second Discharge Diameter: 2.48 inches Volts: 120.2 Amps: 0.54 Watts: 45 Hertz: 60 Controllable (by Tunze Multicontroller): Yes Tunze recommends this pump for aquaria sized: >800 gallons (US) Figure 12. Velocity zones for the 6155 Turbelle stream 2 propeller pump. Zone 4 = >20"/sec; Zone 3 = 8"-20"/sec; Zone 2 = 2"-8"/sec; Zone 1 = 0.5" to 2"/sec. Figure 13. A polynomial trend line allows an estimation of water velocity at various distances from the pump's discharge. Pump: 6255 Turbelle stream 2 Maximum Discharge Velocity: 5.31 feet per second Discharge Diameter: 2.48 inches Volts: 120.4 Amps: 0.65 Watts: 61 Hertz: 60 Controllable (by Tunze Multicontroller): Yes Tunze recommends this pump for aquaria sized: >1,050 gallons (US) The 6255 Turbelle stream pump is the largest of the 'steam' lineup. It delivers the highest water velocity (5.12 feet per second) of any pump examined here, while having the largest discharge diameter (3"). Two sets of tests were performed on this pump. The first was in a 240-gallon aquarium (8' x 2' x 2'). An odd flow pattern was observed in this 'small' tank (see Figure 20). A second test was conducted in a 740-gallon fiberglass tank (see Figures 22). The observed flow pattern was much different (see Figures 14 and 15.) See the 'Discussion' section below for further comments. Figure 14. Test 2: Water velocities to 42 inches from the discharge of the 6255. This stream is dynamic and changes constantly (mostly on the x-axis.) Red = >20"/sec; Orange = 8" - 20"/sec; Yellow = 2" - 8"/sec; Green = <2"/sec. Figure 15. Test 2: Water velocities created by the 6255 (60 to 96 inches from the pump's discharge - y-axis.) Vortices spin in random patterns. A brace atop the vat prevented gathering of data from 42" to 60". Figure 16. 6085 Turbelle stream velocity data. No trend line is included as the best fit went into negative territory. Still, valuable information is presented. Discussion It is difficult to underestimate the importance of water motion in an aquarium, yet research on the best measure (velocity) is rare in hobbyist literature. The propeller pumps and their technology have revolutionized the way reef keepers move water with their aquaria. With these changes come challenges. Propeller pumps can create zones of very high water velocity (as defined by Sebens, 1993; 1997a; 1997b) on an order unseen with many previous devices. Proper positioning of sessile invertebrates in an aquarium becomes more important. Figure 17 shows the approximate velocities created by the Turbelle stream pump series. Figure 17. Velocities created by Turbelle stream 2 pumps. As one can clearly see, pump size (defined as power consumption in watts) does not necessarily equate to higher velocity at the pump's discharge. Though motor power and speed are important, another factor comes into play - that of the pump discharge diameter. An excellent example can be seen in Figure 17's display of velocity zones created by the 6105. The only difference in the pump's configuration is the discharge diameter (the pump comes with two different sized discharge nozzles - 1.96" and 2.48".) Decreasing the discharge diameter by ~0.5" increases the water velocity by about 30%. In most any practical scenario, reducing the area of a discharge through which a known volume passes will increase velocity. It would be interesting if Tunze offered differently sized nozzles for all their pumps. Generally, the higher the discharge velocity, the longer the jet stream (or plume). See Figure 18. The diameter of the plume is also very important. Figure 18. Approximate plume diameters generated by Tunze pumps. Water motion might be impeded if the plume diameter exceeds the width and depth of the aquarium. In this case, the pump pushes water to one end of the aquarium and constant force tends to make the water 'pile up.' This cannot continue indefinitely, and eventually the water at the end of the aquarium will return towards the pump. This is likely to cause erratic flow patterns and turbulence. Figure 19 shows a crude approximation of this concept. Figure 19. Two potential flow patterns. At top, the pump's discharge plume diameter is less than the width and depth of the aquarium, allowing for two oval shape water flow patterns. At bottom, the plume diameter exceeds width and depth and creates hectic flow patterns. Though not necessarily bad, the flow patterns become unpredictable. An example of a flow pattern created by an oversized pump is seen in Figure 20. Compare this contorted flow pattern created by the 6255 Turbelle pump (in a 240-gallon tank) to Figure 14 (velocities measured in a much larger aquarium). The plume seen in the larger aquarium resembles the flow patterns seen with the other (smaller) pumps. Recommendations based on aquarium volume seem to be a starting point. However, the dimensions of the aquarium should not be ignored. These data suggests that plume diameter should not exceed tank width and depth. Aquarium length is still of importance, of course, due to flow attenuation and must be considered as well - Figure 15 shows low velocity, whirling vortices created by the 6255 pump at about 6 feet from the discharge. Figure 20. Test 1: Velocity zones for the 6255 Turbelle stream 2 propeller pump in a 240-gallon aquarium. Zone 4 = >20"/sec; Zone 3 = 8"-20"/sec; Zone 2 = 2"-8"/sec; Zone 1 = 0.5" to 2"/sec. To recap, an understanding of pump performance is important to aquarists, particularly those interested in the maintenance of sessile invertebrates. 'Gallons per hour' is a poor standard to use and is meaningless except for crude comparative purposes - water velocity presents much more useful information. Water velocity, when combined with known preferences of corals, is a powerful tool to use when placing an animal within an aquarium. Resist the urge to employ an oversized pump. More is not necessarily better. As usual, results of these tests ask more questions (Is it possible to increase water velocity at great distance from a pump by selective aquascaping? At what point does the increased size of a coral create enough drag to effectively render a given velocity ineffective? Damage to a propeller reduces efficiently. By how much? When should a propeller be replaced? Is it possible to repair a prop? And many others.) Data presented here is the result of hundreds of hours of tests and observations, yet it merely scratches the surface. On a personal note, I would not care if I don't lay eyes on that water velocity meter for quite some time. More testing will be conducted when I overcome this phobia. Testing Protocol Water velocity was measured with a magnetic flow meter, the Flo-Mate 2000, made by Marsh-McBirney, Maryland. The meters manufactured by this company are marketed by the Hach Company (Loveland, Colorado). A magnetic flow meter operates on Faraday's Principle where increasing water velocity moving across a submersed probe creates a measurable distortion in a magnetic field. See Figure 21. Figure 21. The Flo-Mate 2000 water velocity meter. Measurements were made in a 240-gallon aquarium (8' x 2' x 2' - braces at the top would allow measurements only to a width of 18 inches). This aquarium proved suitable for all pumps except for the 6255 Turbelle stream pump. This pump's flow pattern appeared distorted in the 240-gallon aquarium and the assumption was made that the pump was too large for this size tank. For this reason, testing was repeated in a larger tank (a 740 gallon fiberglass vat - ~8' x ~4' and ~2.5', with a triangular bottom adding the additional gallons - see Figure 22). A jig built of dimensional lumber held the velocity meter's sensor at a constant depth. A central sliding member allowed the sensor to move from side to side while maintaining the constant depth (which corresponded to the center of the pump's discharge.) Where appropriate, pumps were run at maximum speed via adjustment of the pump's rheostat. Measurements per made every 2 inches at axes x and y, and velocity measurements were observed for about 30 seconds each (thousands of measurements were made for this article - this made for quite tedious and boring work!) An approximate average velocity was determined, entered into MS Excel and graphed. Figure 22. The 740-gallon fiberglass tank used for testing the 6255 Turbelle stream pump. The 240-gallon aquarium (covered with blue tarps to the right was also used in testing.) The wooden sliding jig holding the water velocity probe straddles the vat. Not all lab work is in a spotless lab where researchers wear white lab coats! These graphs were traced, scanned, and opened in MS Paint for completion of the flow patterns (such as seen in Figure 2.) Electrical information was gathered by a Kill-A-Watt electrical monitoring meter (P3 International). Questions? Comments? Please leave them in them 'Comment' section below. References and Further Reading Sebens K.P. and T.J. Done, 1993. Water flow, growth form and distribution of scleractinian corals: Davies Reef (GBR), Australia. Proc. 7th Int. Coral Reef Symp., Guam. 1: 557-568. Sebens, K.P., 1997a. Adaptive responses to water flow: morphology, energetics and distribution of coral reefs. Proc. 8th Int. Coral Reef Symp., Panama. II: 1053-1058. Sebens, K., J. Witting and B. Helmuth, 1997b. Effects of water flow and branch spacing on particle capture by the reef coral Madracis mirabilis (Duchassaing and Michelotti). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol., 211(1):1-28 (Abstract). Wijgerde, T., 2013. Coral feeding: An overview. http://www.advancedaquarist.com/2013/12/aafeature View the full article

Click through to see the images. Have you ever wondered why you're unsuccessful in the husbandry of certain corals? Perhaps you've emulated the aquarium of a friend or one you've seen in a shop. Every detail has been copied. Why does the success others have seem to elude you with certain corals? As with many endeavors, the devil is in the details. While some might contribute lack of success to lighting or water chemistry issues, it is certain that many failures can be attributed to water motion. Estimating water velocity visually is difficult - the clear waters of reef aquaria don't allow easy visualizations. This article will offer insights of some of the popular water pumps available to hobbyists and can aid them in selection of the proper pump for your aquarium as well as estimating proper placement for a few coral species. Hundreds of water velocity data points were gathered with an electronic meter and graphed to allow a visualization of water movement in an aquarium. Tunze (technically Aquarientechnik GmbH, and pronounced 'tune-zah') is a familiar name to most serious reef aquarium hobbyists. Headquartered in Penzburg, Germany, Tunze has been manufacturing products for the aquarium market since 1960. Their products are noted for quality and upper-end pricing. This month, we'll examine the performance of Tunze Turbelle stream 2 pumps. This report follows a similar article where Tunze nanostream pumps were tested (see http://www.advancedaquarist.com/2013/4/review for details). Many reviews of aquarium pumps examine only the pump's capacity, usually expressed as gallons per hour, or liters per hour. While this metric is fine for comparative purposes, we must realize that 'gallons per hour' is meaningless on a real reef. Researchers often test for, and report water movement as, velocity (feet per second, for example). Scientists have determined that corals have differing preferences for water velocity. Defining Velocity Zones and Why You Should Care Water velocity has long been recognized as an important factor on natural coral reefs and there is much valuable information available to hobbyists. The categories chosen for this article were developed by one of the more prolific researchers of coral reef water flow dynamics - Kenneth Sebens. In his 1997 work, Sebens categorized water velocities into 4 zones. Low: Velocity of <1 to 5 centimeters per second (<~1/2" to 2" per second). This zone is periodically found on deeper (>25m, or ~82 feet depth) fore-reefs, isolated tide pools (such as at low tide), lagoons, and back-reefs. Moderate: Velocity of 6 to 20 centimeters per second (~2" to 8" per second). Mid- to shallow-fore reefs often experience these flows. High: Water speed of 21 to 50 centimeters per second (~8" to 20" inches per second). High velocities found in surf zones. Very High: Velocity exceeds 50 centimeters per second (>20" per second). Also found in some surf zones, storm surges, reef spur and grooves, etc. Note that these categories are not all inclusive - oceanic water velocity can sometimes be measured in meters per second. Of course, this information is of little use without specifics. In a recent excellent article Wijgerde (2013, http://www.advancedaquarist.com/2013/12/aafeature) lists the optimal water velocities for a number of stony and soft corals as well as gorgonians. See Table 1. Table 1. Optimal Water Velocity for Selected Corals (From Wijgerde, 2013) Coral Optimum Velocity for Prey Capture (inches/sec) Acanthogorgia vegae 3.1 Agaricia agaricites 7.1 Agaricia agaricites (bifacial) 11.8 Agaricia agaricites (horizontal) 7.1 to 19.7 Briareum asbestinum 2.3 to 4.7 Dendronephthya hemprichii 3.9 to 9.8 Eunicea tournefortis 2.4 to 4.72 Galaxea fascicularis 3.9 Lophelia petusa 1.0 Melithaea ochracea 3.1 Plexaura dichotoma 2.4 to 4.72 Porites porites 3.5 to 4.33 Pseudopterogorgia americana 2.4 to 4.72 Subergorgia suberasa 3.1 See Wijgerde's article for details. Water velocity measurements I've made at ~15' depth on reefs here in Hawaii (on a calm day) show an oscillating water motion of about 4 to 6 inches per second. These reefs are dominated by Porites lobata, Porites lutea, Pocillopora meandrina, and Pocillopora eydouxi. During times of strong swells, the water is much too dangerous to enter, and velocities are certainly best reported in feet per second. It should be clear that water motion is very important in an aquarium. In addition to optimal feeding velocities, water motion plays an important role in detritus removal, waste removal, gas exchange, delivery of nutrients and micro-nutrients through maintenance of a thin boundary layer, and so on. Turbelle stream Pumps Tunze currently markets 6 Turbelle stream pumps in the United States (7 pumps if the count the 6105's two configurations - a large (2.49" diameter) and small outlet - 1.96" diameter). All Turbelle stream pumps utilize propeller technology for creating water motion. See Figure 1. Figure 1. A Tunze propeller pump. We'll now begin our examination of Tunze Turbelle stream propeller pumps, beginning with: Pump: 6065 Turbelle stream 2 Maximum Discharge Velocity: 2.93 feet per second Discharge Diameter: 1.97 inches Volts: 121.1 Amps: 0.18 Watts: 12 Hertz: 60 Controllable (by Tunze Multicontroller): No Tunze recommends this pump for aquaria sized: 65 to 210 gallons (US) Figure 2. Velocity zones for the 6065 Turbelle stream 2 propeller pump. Zone 4 = >20"/sec; Zone 3 = 8"-20"/sec; Zone 2 = 2"-8"/sec; Zone 1 = 0.5" to 2"/sec. Figure 3. A polynomial trend line allows an estimation of water velocity at various distances from the pump's discharge. Pump: 6085 Turbelle stream 2 Maximum Discharge Velocity: 4.02 feet per second Discharge Diameter: 1.97 inches Volts: 120.2 Amps: 0.18 Watts: 15.7 Hertz: 59.9 Controllable (by Tunze Multicontroller): No Tunze recommends this pump for aquaria sized: 105-265 gallons (US) Figure 4. Velocity zones for the 6085 Turbelle stream 2 propeller pump. Zone 4 = >20"/sec; Zone 3 = 8"-20"/sec; Zone 2 = 2"-8"/sec; Zone 1 = 0.5" to 2"/sec. Figure 5. 6085 Turbelle stream velocity data. No trend line is included as the best fit went into negative territory. Still, valuable information is apparent. Pump: 6105 Turbelle stream 2 (large outlet) Maximum Discharge Velocity: 3.88 feet per second Discharge Diameter: 2.48 inches Volts: 120.1 Amps: 0.35 Watts: 20.2 Hertz: 59.9 Controllable (by Tunze Multicontroller): Yes Tunze recommends this pump for aquaria sized: 50 to 525 gallons (US) Figure 6. Velocity zones for the 6105 Turbelle stream 2 propeller pump (large outlet). Zone 4 = >20"/sec; Zone 3 = 8"-20"/sec; Zone 2 = 2"-8"/sec; Zone 1 = 0.5" to 2"/sec. Figure 7. A polynomial trend line allows an estimation of water velocity at various distances from the pump's discharge. Pump: 6105 Turbelle stream 2 (small outlet) Maximum Discharge Velocity: 4.12 feet per second Discharge Diameter: 1.96 inches Volts: 119.2 Amps: 0.33 Watts: 19.6 Hertz: 59.9 Tunze recommends this pump for aquaria sized: 50 to 525 gallons (US) Figure 8. Velocity zones for the 6105 Turbelle stream 2 propeller pump (small outlet). Zone 4 = >20"/sec; Zone 3 = 8"-20"/sec; Zone 2 = 2"-8"/sec; Zone 1 = 0.5" to 2"/sec. Figure 9. A polynomial trend line allows an estimation of water velocity at various distances from the pump's discharge. Pump: 6125 Turbelle stream 2 Maximum Discharge Velocity: 3.63 feet per second Discharge Diameter: 2.48 inches Volts: 121.7 Amps: 0.36 Watts: 26.2 Hertz: 60 Controllable (by Tunze Multicontroller): No Tunze recommends this pump for aquaria sized: 105 to 525 gallons (US) Figure 10. Velocity zones for the 6125 Turbelle stream 2 propeller pump. Zone 4 = >20"/sec; Zone 3 = 8"-20"/sec; Zone 2 = 2"-8"/sec; Zone 1 = 0.5" to 2"/sec. Figure 11. A polynomial trend line allows an estimation of water velocity at various distances from the pump's discharge. Pump: 6155 Turbelle stream 2 Maximum Discharge Velocity: 4.10 feet per second Discharge Diameter: 2.48 inches Volts: 120.2 Amps: 0.54 Watts: 45 Hertz: 60 Controllable (by Tunze Multicontroller): Yes Tunze recommends this pump for aquaria sized: >800 gallons (US) Figure 12. Velocity zones for the 6155 Turbelle stream 2 propeller pump. Zone 4 = >20"/sec; Zone 3 = 8"-20"/sec; Zone 2 = 2"-8"/sec; Zone 1 = 0.5" to 2"/sec. Figure 13. A polynomial trend line allows an estimation of water velocity at various distances from the pump's discharge. Pump: 6255 Turbelle stream 2 Maximum Discharge Velocity: 5.31 feet per second Discharge Diameter: 2.48 inches Volts: 120.4 Amps: 0.65 Watts: 61 Hertz: 60 Controllable (by Tunze Multicontroller): Yes Tunze recommends this pump for aquaria sized: >1,050 gallons (US) The 6255 Turbelle stream pump is the largest of the 'steam' lineup. It delivers the highest water velocity (5.12 feet per second) of any pump examined here, while having the largest discharge diameter (3"). Two sets of tests were performed on this pump. The first was in a 240-gallon aquarium (8' x 2' x 2'). An odd flow pattern was observed in this 'small' tank (see Figure 20). A second test was conducted in a 740-gallon fiberglass tank (see Figures 22). The observed flow pattern was much different (see Figures 14 and 15.) See the 'Discussion' section below for further comments. Figure 14. Test 2: Water velocities to 42 inches from the discharge of the 6255. This stream is dynamic and changes constantly (mostly on the x-axis.) Red = >20"/sec; Orange = 8" - 20"/sec; Yellow = 2" - 8"/sec; Green = <2"/sec. Figure 15. Test 2: Water velocities created by the 6255 (60 to 96 inches from the pump's discharge - y-axis.) Vortices spin in random patterns. A brace atop the vat prevented gathering of data from 42" to 60". Figure 16. 6085 Turbelle stream velocity data. No trend line is included as the best fit went into negative territory. Still, valuable information is presented. Discussion It is difficult to underestimate the importance of water motion in an aquarium, yet research on the best measure (velocity) is rare in hobbyist literature. The propeller pumps and their technology have revolutionized the way reef keepers move water with their aquaria. With these changes come challenges. Propeller pumps can create zones of very high water velocity (as defined by Sebens, 1993; 1997a; 1997b) on an order unseen with many previous devices. Proper positioning of sessile invertebrates in an aquarium becomes more important. Figure 17 shows the approximate velocities created by the Turbelle stream pump series. Figure 17. Velocities created by Turbelle stream 2 pumps. As one can clearly see, pump size (defined as power consumption in watts) does not necessarily equate to higher velocity at the pump's discharge. Though motor power and speed are important, another factor comes into play - that of the pump discharge diameter. An excellent example can be seen in Figure 17's display of velocity zones created by the 6105. The only difference in the pump's configuration is the discharge diameter (the pump comes with two different sized discharge nozzles - 1.96" and 2.48".) Decreasing the discharge diameter by ~0.5" increases the water velocity by about 30%. In most any practical scenario, reducing the area of a discharge through which a known volume passes will increase velocity. It would be interesting if Tunze offered differently sized nozzles for all their pumps. Generally, the higher the discharge velocity, the longer the jet stream (or plume). See Figure 18. The diameter of the plume is also very important. Figure 18. Approximate plume diameters generated by Tunze pumps. Water motion might be impeded if the plume diameter exceeds the width and depth of the aquarium. In this case, the pump pushes water to one end of the aquarium and constant force tends to make the water 'pile up.' This cannot continue indefinitely, and eventually the water at the end of the aquarium will return towards the pump. This is likely to cause erratic flow patterns and turbulence. Figure 19 shows a crude approximation of this concept. Figure 19. Two potential flow patterns. At top, the pump's discharge plume diameter is less than the width and depth of the aquarium, allowing for two oval shape water flow patterns. At bottom, the plume diameter exceeds width and depth and creates hectic flow patterns. Though not necessarily bad, the flow patterns become unpredictable. An example of a flow pattern created by an oversized pump is seen in Figure 20. Compare this contorted flow pattern created by the 6255 Turbelle pump (in a 240-gallon tank) to Figure 14 (velocities measured in a much larger aquarium). The plume seen in the larger aquarium resembles the flow patterns seen with the other (smaller) pumps. Recommendations based on aquarium volume seem to be a starting point. However, the dimensions of the aquarium should not be ignored. These data suggests that plume diameter should not exceed tank width and depth. Aquarium length is still of importance, of course, due to flow attenuation and must be considered as well - Figure 15 shows low velocity, whirling vortices created by the 6255 pump at about 6 feet from the discharge. Figure 20. Test 1: Velocity zones for the 6255 Turbelle stream 2 propeller pump in a 240-gallon aquarium. Zone 4 = >20"/sec; Zone 3 = 8"-20"/sec; Zone 2 = 2"-8"/sec; Zone 1 = 0.5" to 2"/sec. To recap, an understanding of pump performance is important to aquarists, particularly those interested in the maintenance of sessile invertebrates. 'Gallons per hour' is a poor standard to use and is meaningless except for crude comparative purposes - water velocity presents much more useful information. Water velocity, when combined with known preferences of corals, is a powerful tool to use when placing an animal within an aquarium. Resist the urge to employ an oversized pump. More is not necessarily better. As usual, results of these tests ask more questions (Is it possible to increase water velocity at great distance from a pump by selective aquascaping? At what point does the increased size of a coral create enough drag to effectively render a given velocity ineffective? Damage to a propeller reduces efficiently. By how much? When should a propeller be replaced? Is it possible to repair a prop? And many others.) Data presented here is the result of hundreds of hours of tests and observations, yet it merely scratches the surface. On a personal note, I would not care if I don't lay eyes on that water velocity meter for quite some time. More testing will be conducted when I overcome this phobia. Testing Protocol Water velocity was measured with a magnetic flow meter, the Flo-Mate 2000, made by Marsh-McBirney, Maryland. The meters manufactured by this company are marketed by the Hach Company (Loveland, Colorado). A magnetic flow meter operates on Faraday's Principle where increasing water velocity moving across a submersed probe creates a measurable distortion in a magnetic field. See Figure 21. Figure 21. The Flo-Mate 2000 water velocity meter. Measurements were made in a 240-gallon aquarium (8' x 2' x 2' - braces at the top would allow measurements only to a width of 18 inches). This aquarium proved suitable for all pumps except for the 6255 Turbelle stream pump. This pump's flow pattern appeared distorted in the 240-gallon aquarium and the assumption was made that the pump was too large for this size tank. For this reason, testing was repeated in a larger tank (a 740 gallon fiberglass vat - ~8' x ~4' and ~2.5', with a triangular bottom adding the additional gallons - see Figure 22). A jig built of dimensional lumber held the velocity meter's sensor at a constant depth. A central sliding member allowed the sensor to move from side to side while maintaining the constant depth (which corresponded to the center of the pump's discharge.) Where appropriate, pumps were run at maximum speed via adjustment of the pump's rheostat. Measurements per made every 2 inches at axes x and y, and velocity measurements were observed for about 30 seconds each (thousands of measurements were made for this article - this made for quite tedious and boring work!) An approximate average velocity was determined, entered into MS Excel and graphed. Figure 22. The 740-gallon fiberglass tank used for testing the 6255 Turbelle stream pump. The 240-gallon aquarium (covered with blue tarps to the right was also used in testing.) The wooden sliding jig holding the water velocity probe straddles the vat. Not all lab work is in a spotless lab where researchers wear white lab coats! These graphs were traced, scanned, and opened in MS Paint for completion of the flow patterns (such as seen in Figure 2.) Electrical information was gathered by a Kill-A-Watt electrical monitoring meter (P3 International). Questions? Comments? Please leave them in them 'Comment' section below. References and Further Reading Sebens K.P. and T.J. Done, 1993. Water flow, growth form and distribution of scleractinian corals: Davies Reef (GBR), Australia. Proc. 7th Int. Coral Reef Symp., Guam. 1: 557-568. Sebens, K.P., 1997a. Adaptive responses to water flow: morphology, energetics and distribution of coral reefs. Proc. 8th Int. Coral Reef Symp., Panama. II: 1053-1058. Sebens, K., J. Witting and B. Helmuth, 1997b. Effects of water flow and branch spacing on particle capture by the reef coral Madracis mirabilis (Duchassaing and Michelotti). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol., 211(1):1-28 (Abstract). Wijgerde, T., 2013. Coral feeding: An overview. http://www.advancedaquarist.com/2013/12/aafeature View the full article

Click through to see the images. DNA analysis found that the beautiful and weird larva pictured above (collected in Florida Straits) matures into a Liopropoma olneyi like the one below. Case of the Mistaken Identity Does this fish look familiar? The mega-expensive Golden Basslet sold into the aquarium trade in 2011 was actually L.olneyi, not L.aberrans. This mis-identification wasn't the fault of inexperienced aquarium laymen either. Scientists actually got it wrong themselves when they first observed this fish at Curacao with a manned submersible. Only after testing the DNA of the Florida Straits larva and discovering it didn't match with Liopropoma aberrans did researchers connect the dots. They realized they had a new species on their hands, and it was a fish already discovered, only they didn't know it at the time. A comparison of Liopropoma olneyi (top) versus Liopropoma aberrans (bottom) shows two fishes that look similar but also observably different. L.aberrans was described over a century ago, but very few have ever been observed or documented because of these fish inhabit extremely deep waters and are cryptic to boot. It's thus not surprising scientists and aquarists alike could confuse the identity of a previously unknown species for L.aberrans. But you can't fool DNA "paternity" tests! Here is the full story from the Smithsonian News Desk: Smithsonian Scientists Link Unusual Fish Larva from Florida to New Species of Sea Bass from Deep Reefs of Curacao “Oh, the mother and child reunion is only a moment away,”—Paul Simon Identifying larval stages of marine fishes in the open ocean is difficult because the young fishes often bear little or no resemblance to the adults they will become. Confronted with a perplexing fish larva collected in the Florida Straits, Smithsonian scientists turned to DNA barcoding, which yielded an unexpected discovery—a match between the mysterious fish larva and adults of a new species of sea bass discovered off the coast of Curacao. The team’s research is published in the May 13 issue of PLOS ONE. Most marine fishes have a pelagic larval stage that drifts in the surface or near-surface currents of the ocean―an environment very different from the one they inhabit as adults. Two different environments often require two different body shapes and appearances, resulting in larvae that look very different from the adults of the same species. The larva at the center of this study first came to the team’s attention from a photograph without identification in another research paper. The scientists recognized it as a member of the sea bass family Serranidae but were intrigued by its seven very elongate dorsal-fin spines. “This feature isn’t known in any Atlantic sea bass larvae, but it is similar to one species of Indo-Pacific sea bass,” said David Johnson, a zoologist at Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History. “We initially thought the larva must have been caught in the Indo-Pacific Ocean, but we were wrong.” The fish larva in the photo was in fact caught in the Florida Straits. The team obtained the preserved larval fish for further study and were met with an immediate mystery—a DNA sequence from the specimen did not match any known fish species. That, along with unique morphological features, led the scientists to begin describing the larva as a new species despite the absence of adults. Meanwhile, in a separate project, Smithsonian scientists were using a manned submersible to explore the deep-reef fish species off of Curacao in the southern Caribbean. Among the fish collected were “golden basses,” which the team identified as Liopropoma aberrans based on general color pattern; however, genetic analyses revealed more than one species. Combining this new genetic information with available DNA barcoding data for all western Atlantic sea bass specimens yielded an unexpected discovery: The larva from the Florida Straits is the pelagic stage of a cryptic new species of Liopropoma from southern Caribbean deep reefs. The mystery was solved, and a new species of sea bass—now known as Liopropoma olneyi—was discovered. The team named the new species in honor of a deceased colleague, John E. Olney, who studied and taught courses about marine fish larvae. “This was one of those cases where all the stars were properly aligned,” said Carole Baldwin, a zoologist at Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History. “We discover a new species of sea bass on Curacao deep reefs that just happens to be the missing adult stage of a larval fish from Florida, which we only knew existed because it was included as ‘decoration’ in a scientific publication. What a great little fish story!” Deep reefs, which extend from depths of 150 to more than 1,000 feet, are underexplored ecosystems worldwide. “You can’t access them using traditional SCUBA gear, and if you’re paying a lot of money for a deep-diving submersible that goes to Titanic depths, you’re not stopping at 300 or 800 feet to look for fishes, said Baldwin. “Science has largely missed the deep-reef zone, and it appears to be home to a lot of life that we didn’t know about.” Researchers are now able to study deep reefs in the southern Caribbean because of the availability of the Curasub submersible, a privately owned, manned submersible capable of descending to 1,000 feet. The work off Curacao resulting in the discovery of L. olneyi is part of the Smithsonian’s Deep Reef Observation Project. “We are only beginning to understand the phenomenal diversity of life that inhabits deep Caribbean reefs,” said Baldwin. Journal Reference: Carole C. Baldwin, G. David Johnson. Connectivity across the Caribbean Sea: DNA Barcoding and Morphology Unite an Enigmatic Fish Larva from the Florida Straits with a New Species of Sea Bass from Deep Reefs off Curaçao. PLoS ONE, 2014; 9 (5): e97661 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0097661 View the full article

Click through to see the images. When it opened in 2005, Georgia Aquarium (Atlanta, GA, USA) was the world's largest aquarium. Even though it has been surpassed in size by several Asian aquariums, the Georgia Aquarium continues to be an amazing and massive facility - one which every sea life lover should hope to experience in their lives. The public aquarium is the only facility outside of Asia to exhibit whale sharks, which we see in the video; The whole structure itself was actually designed around the enormous 6.3 million gallon whale shark main display. Now before anyone gets on a soap box about whale sharks in captivity, understand that the whale sharks were taken from Taiwan's annual fishing kill quota. In other words, if they weren't kept alive on exhibit, they would have ended up on someone's dinner plate. In the time-lapse video, we experience the 6.3 million gallon "Ocean Voyager" from both its walk-through tunnel and massive main viewing panel. We also get a glimpse of several jellyfish exhibits as we well as the 164,000 gallon Indo-Pacific reef exhibit. We know we've shared a lot of aquatic time-lapse videos over the years, but we make no apologies for the excess. Blame time-lapse (done right) for being way too awesome. View the full article

Click through to see the images. Martin Moe, Jr. is the pioneering marine biologist and fish aquaculturist that largely shaped the marine aquarium hobby (and particularly marine ornamental breeding) into what it is today. His watershed books in the early to late 1980s to early 1990s helped elevate our hobby from casual pastime to a modern science-based avocation. Moe has written many books and articles (including articles for Advanced Aquarist). His two most notable publications are The Marine Aquarium Handbook (the all-time bestselling saltwater aquarium book covering beginner topics all the way to breeding) and The Marine Aquarium Reference: Systems and Invertebrates (the bible of advanced marine aquarists everywhere for the greater part of two decades). Both books contained huge amounts of detailed information yet are extremely easy and delightful to read (even read front to back like a novel). In 2009, Moe released the third edition of The Marine Aquarium Handbook by updating and expanding the original publication. Now The Marine Aquarium Reference is getting the same treatment after being out of print since 2000. Moe will release the expanded and updated edition of The (New) Marine Aquarium Reference as a five volume ebook series, with the first volume The Chemical Environment available to download now for only $5.99. To give you an idea how much new information the new volume (and series) will contain: The first volume (of five) is 229 pages long. For comparison, the entire original book is 512 pages long. The first volume is essentially the first chapter of the original book with 180 more pages of information. Volume contains 92 sections. "The chapters include the Marine Environment, An Aquarist's Perspective, Water, Composition of Natural Seawater, Composition of Captive Seawater, Salinity, Methods of Salinity Determination, Specific Gravity, including conversion factors, Titration, Conductivity, Refractive Index, Salinity Levels in Marine Systems, Distribution of the Elements in the Sea, The Elements, Major, Minor, Trace, and Ultra Trace, Avogadro’s Number, Natural Sea Water, Artificial Sea Water, Trace Elements, The Role of the Elements, 49 Elements of Interest to Marine Aquarists, 11 Methods for Maintenance of Calcium and Alkalinity, Alkalinity Replacement (Sodium Bicarbonate/ Sodium Carbonate Addition), pH, Dissolved Gasses, Dissolved Organics and Nutrients, Redox Potential, and References." According to Smashword (where you can purchase Volume 1: The Chemical Environment), "The other four volumes are Volume II: The Physical and Biological Environment, Volume III: Elements of Marine Aquarium Systems, Techniques and Technology, Volume IV: Marine Aquarium Systems, Foods and Feeding, and Volume V: Marine Invertebrates, The Organization of Life in the Sea. These additional volumes should be available by 2015." Moe cautions in his preface of Volume 1: "The (New) Marine Aquarium Reference is not an ultimate, up to date, completely comprehensive reference to marine aquaristics." And while it is true that this book series will not cover everything the modern aquarist will want to learn (especially discussions about technology and latest trends), we think Moe may be a tad too humble. 25 years ago, The Marine Aquarium Reference served as the benchmark for which other aquarium reference books have been measured by, and it looks like The (New) Marine Aquarium Reference will continue that legacy. View the full article

Looking for c02 regulator, please pm me if you are selling. Sent from my SM-G900F using Tapatalk

Click through to see the images. Paragobiodon echinocephalus is one of several dwarf gobies that live their entire lives within the branches of SPS corals. P. echinocephalus lives exclusively within Stylophora spp., thus earning its common name the Redhead Stylophora Goby. They're often found in small groups and form monogamous pairs, like the two photographed by Ned. Ned and Anna DeLoach of www.blennywatcher.com are out diving in the Indo-Pacific right now and should be back soon with a bunch of amazing photos, stories, and possibly new species to share! We can't wait! View the full article

Click through to see the images. Paragobiodon echinocephalus is one of several dwarf gobies that live their entire lives within the branches of SPS corals. P. echinocephalus lives exclusively within Stylophora spp., thus earning its common name the Redhead Stylophora Goby. They're often found in small groups and form monogamous pairs, like the two photographed by Ned. Ned and Anna DeLoach of www.blennywatcher.com are out diving in the Indo-Pacific right now and should be back soon with a bunch of amazing photos, stories, and possibly new species to share! We can't wait! View the full article